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Context: Language is one of the primary modalities for teaching and learning in the health professions in contexts ranging from the more formal teaching relationships of medical school to the guided practice of trainees through continuing education and the deliberate practice of lifelong learning. Yet linguistic analysis, with the possible exception of discourse analysis, has not become a core methodological tool in the field of health professions education (HPE). The purpose of this paper is to argue for the more widespread adoption of one particular approach to linguistics, one that examines less of what learners and instructors say and looks more at how they say it: functional linguistics., Functional Linguistics: THE POWER OF 'STEALTH WORDS': This approach theorises and structures the functions of language, regularly focusing attention on 'stealth words' such as I, but and was. Drawing on a rich body of literature in linguistics, psychology, the learning sciences and some early work in HPE, we demonstrate how functional linguistic tools can be applied to better understand learners' and instructors' beliefs, reasoning processes, values and emotions., Functional Linguistics and Reflection: AN APPLICATION OF STEALTH WORDS: A brief qualitative analysis of one tool - analysis of the generic use of 'you' to mean 'one' or 'anyone' - demonstrates how functional linguistics can offer insight into physicians' bids for credibility and alignment as they think aloud about their clinical reasoning., Functional Linguistics and Hpe: FUTURE DIRECTIONS: Finally, we offer suggestions for how functional linguistic tools might address questions and gaps in four active research areas in HPE: reflection; emotion and reasoning; learning in simulated contexts, and self-regulated learning., Conclusions: We argue that the words used by learners, instructors and practitioners in the health professions as they move through undergraduate and graduate training into practice can offer clues that will help researchers, instructors and colleagues to better support them., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons Ltd and The Association for the Study of Medical Education.)

The world of applied linguistics and the profession of foreign language teaching needs to finally sweep away the notion of "Native Speaker" (NS) and the deficit perspective surrounding foreign language learners. We argue that Positive Psychology is a source of inspiration for a new and more positive perspective on foreign language learners and users. Rather than obsessing about negative aspects of life, Positive Psychologists defend a more holistic perspective. By transforming the view of learners as failed "NS" of the target language to that of increasingly competent and happy users of a foreign language would lift a huge burden from the shoulders of foreign language learners and their teachers alike. We argue that the unexpected longevity and ubiquity of the NS in the foreign language teaching profession have deep historical roots in linguistics and culture, and that only a radical paradigm shift can dislodge it.

The seventh and last chapter of Vygotsky's Thinking and Speech (1934) is generally considered as his final word in psychology. It is a long chapter with a complex argumentative structure in which Vygotsky gives his view on the relationship between thinking and speech. Vygotsky's biographers have stated that the chapter was dictated in the final months of Vygotsky's life when his health was rapidly deteriorating. Although the chapter is famous, its structure has never been analyzed in any detail. In the present article we reveal its rhetorical structure and show how Vygotsky drew on many hitherto unrevealed sources to convince the reader of his viewpoint., (© 2018 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

The present paper reviews how language and communication are used to describe placebo phenomena in medicine, with particular reference at key points to the question of pain. Selected aspects of placebo language are submitted to lexical, grammatical and semantic analysis. We distinguish three uses of placebo, with three semantic components: "pleasing," inert medication or procedure, and what is often called "deception." The three uses of placebo are: Placebo-treatment, which combines all three semantic components: "pleasing" patients with inert treatments, and possibly with "deception." Placebo-trial, which refers to the closely defined inert control in Randomized Controlled Trials. Placebo-rapport, which covers all aspects of the health care encounter, excluding therapeutic interventions, but including psychosocial factors which can have a beneficial effect on the patient. Three key conclusions emerge from this analysis. First, the "deception" connotation of placebo found in placebo-treatment can contaminate the use of placebo-trial and especially placebo-rapport. Second, the enlarged "pleasing" framework of placebo-rapport, which includes the benefits of quality appropriate and helpful medical care, forces us to ask whether placebo-trial in Randomized Controlled Trials has in fact been a neutral baseline control. Biopsychosocial and other factors in placebo-rapport may have influenced the outcomes of many trials in medicine and pharmacology. And third, extending placebo-rapport to embrace all aspects of clinical care (except specific medication or procedural interventions) and psychosocial factors of the health care encounter engages patient beliefs, mindsets and interpersonal dynamics, as well as values and contextual and cultural issues. These take placebo-rapport substantially beyond what is currently seen as its identity and modes of operation., (© 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The use of proper names enables us to designate entities, including people, at a very specific level of categorization: the unique entity or the individual. The paper presents a general overview of psychological/cognitive and neuroscientific studies that have compared the production of proper names, in particular people's names, with the production of common nouns during the last thirty years. The search for specific brain correlates of proper naming included single-case and group studies of patients with brain lesions, and studies utilizing functional neuroimaging or brain electrical stimulation with healthy participants. These studies have led neuroscientists to hypothesize that the recall of proper names involves a rather complex network including mainly left frontal and temporal regions. Behavioural evidence supports the view that proper names are more difficult to recall than common names, and scientists have proposed different explanations for this relative difficulty. Finally, several new directions for future research are proposed to improve our understanding of both cognitive processes and their brain correlates involved during proper name recall., (Copyright © 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Cohesive speech has commonly become regarded as one of the essential aspects of language development, especially for pre-schoolers. This study aimed to shed light on the cohesive speech of pre-schoolers (CSP) knowledge base. Three hundred ninety-five publications close related cohesive speech research of 5-6-year-old children were collected from the Scopus database. By using the bibliometric approach, the results showed the growth rate of publications over time from 1970 to 2020. In this period, the top five countries, the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, Brazil and France, have published over 60% of total documents. Besides, four main interests of authors in this field were discovered: "language development", "speech pathology outcomes", "speech therapy", "language intervention". Among these themes, "speech pathology outcomes" was the most relevant one. Another finding, in recent years, scholars focused on aspects of autism spectrum disorder of pre-schoolers. More importantly, the achievements of this discipline have considerably made positive contributions to various fields both in terms of theory and practice, especially in language and linguistics, speech and hearing, psychology, and medicine. Overall, these studies highlight the need for many other studies, particularly relevant to pre-schooling when new generations should be better prepared to be happy in school by their future cognitive developments.

Purpose: To improve the credibility, reproducibility, and clinical utility of research findings, many scientific fields are implementing transparent and open research practices. Such open science practices include researchers making their data publicly available and preregistering their hypotheses and analyses. A way to enhance the adoption of open science practices is for journals to encourage or require submitting authors to participate in such practices. Accordingly, the American Speech-Language-Hearing Association's Journals Program has recently announced their intention to promote open science practices. Here, we quantitatively assess the extent to which several journals in communication sciences and disorders (CSD) encourage or require participation in several open science practices by using the Transparency and Openness Promotion (TOP) Factor metric. Method: TOP Factors were assessed for 34 CSD journals, as well as several journals in related fields. TOP Factors measure the level of implementation across 10 open science--related practices (e.g., data transparency, analysis plan preregistration, and replication) for a total possible score of 29 points. Results: Collectively, CSD journals had very low TOP Factors (M = 1.4, range: 0-8). The related fields of Psychology (M = 4.0), Rehabilitation (M = 3.2), Linguistics (M = 1.7), and Education (M = 1.6) also had low scores, though Psychology and Rehabilitation had higher scores than CSD. Conclusion: CSD journals currently have low levels of encouraging or requiring participation in open science practices, which may impede adoption.

This study attempted to scrutinize the disciplinary and cross-disciplinary generic variations of textbook introductions in humanities and basic sciences with reference to the onion model. The data included a sample of 60 introductions (i.e. ten each from applied linguistics, sociology, and psychology within humanities, and ten each from biology, agriculture, and geology within basic sciences). Humphrey and Economou's (2015) onion model of discourse analysis was adopted, and MAXQDA 10 software of qualitative analysis was used for coding. The findings revealed similarities and differences not only within but also between the two disciplines, which can be attributed to the nature of disciplines as well as the generically accepted conventions in each discipline. Moreover, the results of the study highlighted the predominance of descriptive and analytical phases in textbook introductions not only in isolation but also in establishing more complicated genres like persuasion and critique. The study highlights the importance of teaching which is concerned with learners' rhetorical consciousness-raising of the disciplines as well as the discipline-specific lexico-grammatical features in expert texts.

The notion of the border is an interesting advancement in research on the processes of meaning making within the cultural psychology. The development of this notion in semiotic key allows to handle with adequate complexity construction, transformation, stability and the breakup of the relationship between person/world/otherness. These semiotic implications have already been widely discussed and exposed by authors such Valsiner (2007, 2014), Neuman (2003, 2008), Simão (Culture & Psychology, 9, 449-459, 2003, Theory & Psychology, 15, 549-574, 2005, 2015), with respect to issues of identity/relatedness, inside/outside, stability/change in the irreversible flow of the time. In this work, after showing some of the basics of such semiotic notion of border, we discuss the processes of construction and transformation of borders through the modal articulation, defined as the contextual positioning that the person assumes with respect to the establishment of a boundary in terms of necessity, obligation, willingness, possibility, permission, ability. This modal subjective positioning acquires considerable interest from the clinical point of view since its degree of plasticity vs that of rigidity is the basis of processes of development or stiffening of relations between person/world/otherness.

This paper provides a broad overview of the development of the domain of 'psychology in language learning' (PLL). It discusses the linguistic dominance of the past, the growing influence of psychology in the present, and the challenges for the future. The author also proposes a research agenda aimed at making the process of L2 learning and teaching more principled and effective.

George Herbert Mead was an early-twentieth century American psychologist, who work on social psychology has been especially influential in sociology. Although Mead wrote a good deal on language, his work has had much less influence on linguistics and applied linguistics. Outlining key ideas from Mead's work on the emergence of language and mind from social interaction in the environment, this paper makes a case for Mead to be considered among the foundational figures in the psychology of language learning. It argues that his work is especially worth reading as a source of ideas that might underpin an ecological view of the psychology of language learning.

This study aims to give a brief overview of some prominent figures in the field of English Language Teaching (ELT) and their main contributions to the field. Since the field is closely interlinked with linguistics and psychology, most of the major contributors covered in the study are psychologists or linguists from various time frames as of the late 1800s. Actually, the current stage attained in the field is the accumulation of knowledge and experiences throughout centuries;and some outstanding figures have made really remarkable contributions in this long process.While some of them produced ground-breaking theories concerning a specific aspect of the field,some others produced guiding academic resources that has been employed by thousands of ELT researchers and practitioners. Although there are many studies which focus on different aspects o fELT and cover dispersed information about the outstanding figures covered here and their contributions, there is not one which provides a compact pile of information on these significant contributors. It has been intended to fill this gap in the existing literature and constitute a to-the point address about the fathers and mothers of ELT for the researchers, practitioners, and the interested layman.

Anglophone psychology shares its vocabulary with several other subjects. Some of the more obvious subjects that have parts of their vocabulary in common with Anglophone psychology include biology (e.g., dominance), chemistry (e.g., isomorphism), philosophy (e.g., phenomenology), and theology (e.g., mediator). Using data from the Oxford English Dictionary as well as other sources, the present study explored the history of these common vocabularies, with a view to broadening our understanding of the relation between the history of psychology and the histories of other subjects. It turns out that there are at least 156 different subjects that share words with psychology. Those that have the most words in common with psychology are mathematics, biology, physics, medicine, chemistry, philosophy, law, music, linguistics, electricity, pathology, and computing. Words that have senses in other subjects and have their origins in ordinary language are used more frequently as PsycINFO keywords than words that were invented specifically for use in psychology. These and other results are interpreted in terms of the ordinary language roots of the vocabulary of Anglophone psychology and other subjects, the degree to which operational definitions have determined the meaning of the psychological senses of words, the role of the psychologist in interdisciplinary research, and the validity of psychological essentialism.

We explore mutual information (MI) as a means of characterizing linguistic statistical structure. The MI between two linguistic tokens x and y is the degree to which seeing x helps us anticipate the occurrence of y. We computed MI between words in 595 samples of written text in 25 languages. Our analyses indicate that MI dependencies do not extend beyond a range of five words. Moreover, the similarity between MI profiles of different languages was used to cluster the languages. These results are discussed in terms of a putative link between short-term memory and linguistic structure and the further utility of MI in terms of characterizing the latter.

In the past decade, there has been a growing recognition that society's emphasis on speed and efficiency came with some costs: a loss of the ability to appreciate activities and understand their meanings. Recently, this meta-movement has made its way into the literature on literacy, causing the author to embark on an investigation into the veracity of the claims that slow reading might also mean "better" reading. A natural history approach was adopted for the analysis to evaluate whether there was evolutionary justification for the movement, leading to the review of relevant work in the fields of ethology, psychology, cognitive neuroscience, anthropology, sociology, linguistics, and literacy. The findings reveal an evolutionary push toward both speed and understanding, two aims that eventually come to be at odds in expert readers. It is the conclusion of the author that, from an evolutionary perspective, there may be justification for the start of a slow reading movement, but that it must be paired with practices that develop the capacity to read fast.

Random samples taken from six recent textbooks and three older books in introductory psychology were analyzed with respect to linguistic style, emotional tone, and pattern of citation. Newer and older books, individual books, and categories of chapters within books were compared to each other. Analysis suggests that newer books are longer and linguistically more complicated. They also contain proportionally more citations, and more text pages devoted to social psychology and psychopathology than older books. There were several significant stylistic and emotional differences among books and some significant content differences among chapters.

This study addresses the hypothesis that individuals have characteristic ways of looking at the world that are revealed not only in their life story but also in their professional work. It seeks to provide the first empirical test of this hypothesis using systematic methods for data selection, interpretation, and matching, as applied to the case of B. F. Skinner. Using the salience identifier "primacy" (Alexander, 1990), Skinner's first research design and the first paragraph of his autobiography were selected for analysis. Adopting a personological approach to interpretation, "scripts" (Tomkins, 1987) were derived from these materials by blind and independent coders. A matching task (Allport, 1961) then indicated that the scripts derived from Skinner's work and life were substantially similar and significantly more similar than random pairs of scripts . A search through other autobiographical and professional writings by Skinner revealed that the elements of the discovered script appear recurrently in his imagery.

Despite its critical role for the development of the field, little is known about replication in second language (L2) research. To better understand replication practice, we first provide a narrative review of challenges related to replication, drawing on recent developments in psychology. This discussion frames and motivates a systematic review, building on syntheses of replication in psychology, education, and L2 research. We coded 67 self-labeled L2 replication studies found across 26 journals for 136 characteristics. We estimated a mean rate of 1 published replication study for every 400 articles, with a mean of 6.64 years between initial and replication studies and a mean of 117 citations of the initial study before a replication was published. Replication studies had an annual mean of 7.3 citations, much higher than averages in linguistics and education. Overlap in authorship between initial and replication studies and the availability of the initial materials both increased the likelihood of a replication supporting the initial findings. Our sample contained no direct (exact) replication attempts, and changes made to initial studies were numerous and wide ranging, which likely obscured, if not undermined, the interpretability of replication studies. To improve the amount and quality of L2 replication research, we propose 16 recommendations relating to rationale, nomenclature, design, infrastructure, and incentivization for collaboration and publication.

Mangarevan traditionally contained two numeration systems: a general one, which was highly regular, decimal, and extraordinarily extensive; and a specific one, which was restricted to specific objects, based on diverging counting units, and interspersed with binary steps. While most of these characteristics are shared by numeration systems in related languages in Oceania, the binary steps are unique. To account for these characteristics, this article draws on--and tries to integrate--insights from anthropology, archeology, linguistics, psychology, and cognitive science more generally. The analysis of mental arithmetic with these systems reveals that both types of systems entailed cognitive advantages and served important functions in the cultural context of their application. How these findings speak to more general questions revolving around the theoretical models and evolutionary trajectory of numerical cognition will be discussed in the Conclusion.

How children learn to read is a controversial matter. Since the teaching of literacy has always been a major purpose of schooling, pedagogy and teaching methods have generally framed research and practice. Psychologists and linguists have played a major role in determining what we mean by "literacy learning". Although they disagree on whether children should start with phonics and work toward meaning or vice versa, both limit the task to the cognitive and linguistic capabilities of the individual. In this article, I argue for an extension of this paradigm, whereby sociocultural theories are given equal value with both psychological and linguistic perspectives. Using examples from ethnographic studies in London, I show how children learn complex texts by becoming members of communities they wish to join. Through playing, rehearsing, modelling, and practice, they learn the value of literacy alongside the cognitive and linguistic skills needed for learning to take place.

Academic literacies research has tended to focus on writers in context, while systemic functional linguistic research has tended to focus on texts in context. While literacy practices and written texts may be usefully analysed independently, this paper describes how an investigation of genres of academic writing in the BAWE (British Academic Written English) corpus draws on an exploration of the social context of assessed student writing in order to support the analysis of texts with an IMRD (Introduction, Methods, Results, Discussion) type structure as members of either the Research Report or Methodology Recount genre family. It also illustrates how register analysis in SFL allows the analyst to gain insights into disciplinary contexts and ideologies through a comparison of extracts from the methods sections of corpus linguistics, psychology and chemistry assignment texts. The paper not only shows how research into writing practices and participant perspectives is combined with text analysis in one project, but also argues that an understanding of both is essential for the application of research findings in teaching EAP. (Contains 6 tables.)

Largely due to technological advances, methods for analyzing readability have increased significantly in recent years. While past researchers designed hundreds of formulas to estimate the difficulty of texts for readers, controversy has surrounded their use for decades, with criticism stemming largely from their application in creating new texts as well as their utilization of surface-level indicators as proxies for complex cognitive processes that take place when reading a text. This review focuses on examining developments in the field of readability during the past two decades with the goal of informing both current and future research and providing recommendations for present use. The fields of education, linguistics, cognitive science, psychology, discourse processing, and computer science have all made recent strides in developing new methods for predicting the difficulty of texts for various populations. However, there is a need for further development of these methods if they are to become widely available.

This is the first study to use self-reported ratings of student learning, instructor recommendations, and course recommendations as the outcome measure to estimate class size effects, doing so across 24 disciplines. Fixed-effects models controlling for heterogeneous courses and instructors reveal that increasing enrollment has negative and significant effects on student satisfaction in Sociology, Political Science, Computer Science and Engineering, and Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering. Educational outcomes in Linguistics, Psychology, Biological Sciences, Chemistry, Math, Physics, Cognitive Sciences, Visual Arts, History, and Philosophy are unaffected by class size. Other disciplines, including Economics, have inconclusive findings. No discipline benefits from increasing enrollment. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Several psycholinguistic theories have appealed to the linguistic notion of markedness to help explain asymmetrical patterns of behavioural data. We suggest that this sort of markedness is best thought of as a derived rather than a primitive notion, emerging when the distributional properties of linguistic categories interact with general-purpose category learning mechanisms. To test this claim, four category learning experiments were conducted in which the stimuli were spoken nonsense words (Experiments 1 and 4), musical phrases (Experiment 2), or pictures of robots (Experiment 3). In each experiment, the base rates and variability of the categories were manipulated. A broadly similar pattern of markedness-like behaviour was seen in all three experiments. Our findings highlight the potential role of general-purpose learning mechanisms in theorising about linguistic categories. (Contains 6 tables and 1 figure.)

Scholars of teaching and learning have endorsed self-assessment assignments as a way to encourage greater reflection by students. However, no studies to date have compared writing in self-assessment with traditional academic assignments. We performed a quantitative text analysis of students' language in self-assessment versus traditional assignments from 3 courses. Self-assessment assignments included more references to cognitive words (i.e., words related to insight) than traditional academic assignments. In addition, self-assessments included more emotion words and pronouns and were linguistically simpler than traditional academic assignments. We conclude that self-assessment assignments encourage students to become more reflective, a goal of the American Psychological Association (2007) curricular guidelines. (Contains 2 tables and 3 notes.)

Purpose: The purpose of this paper is to illustrate how language functions to construct relevance at moments of articulation and how language functions as an aggressive marketing practice to promote a self-regulated (production-oriented) system of accreditation. Design/methodology/approach: Drawing on the political theory of Laclau and Lacanian psychoanalytical theory of desire and aggressivity, a linguistic case study is used to illustrate the construction and promotion of accreditation and relevance. Findings: Aggressive competitive behavior in the area of higher education accreditation sets up inter-institutional antagonisms at the local and global level which may prove socially divisive and restrict the distribution of knowledge for the social good with the possible implication of restricting economic growth for competitively weaker countries. Research limitations/implications: The micro analysis of language restricts the size of the data set considered in a single article. Practical implications: Stakeholders of higher education institutions may wish to consider the strategic implications of accreditation beyond inter-institution rivalry. Originality/value: Methodologically, this paper provides an innovative application of political, psychoanalytical and linguistic theory. Empirically, the paper provides new insights into the accreditation of higher education. (Contains 2 notes.)

Examines the relationship between psychology and linguistics, identifies three reasons why initial efforts at partnership may have been inherently flawed, and argues that recent developments may provide a more solid basis for partnership. (Author/VWL)

Treats the "Modern Language Journal" as a site for observing how a particular community, foreign language (FL) teachers, over an 85-year period shaped its practices discursively, gradually developing a particular kind of professional identity. Provides an overview of the way two acknowledged lead disciplines for the teaching of foreign languages in the United States--linguistics and psychology--have affected those individuals engaged in FL teaching. (Author/VWL)