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There are many measures of student perceptions of school climate; accordingly, there is a staggering amount of research examining those perceptions and related outcomes. There is a comparatively sm...

The aim of the current study was to examine whether collective moral disengagement in the classroom was associated with bullying perpetration and victimisation. One-thousand-and-fifty-four students...

Researchers have suggested that bystander behaviors and victim coping play an important role in counteracting the negative effects of bullying. The current study investigated the relationship between students' ratings of coping effectiveness when addressing bullying and their behaviors as bystanders when witnessing bullying. Surveys were administered in a Midwestern, suburban school district. Some associations between perceptions of coping effectiveness and bystander behavior supported our hypotheses (e.g., constructive coping associated with defending bystander behaviors, externalizing associated with pro-bullying behaviors). However, some findings did not support hypothesized relationships. For example, higher ratings of effectiveness for cognitive distancing as a coping strategy were associated with increased defending behaviors as a bystander. Gender moderated some of these relationships. Pro-bullying bystander behavior was associated with increased ratings of cognitive distancing and decreased reports of constructive coping effectiveness for girls. Implications for future research and practice are discussed.

The commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is a form of childhood sexual abuse involving the sexual exploitation of youth for economic gain. School-based CSEC prevention efforts have inc...

Student responses to bullying have an effect on subsequent outcomes. Dichotomous theories of coping suggest that self-reliance plays a role in responding to stress. In order to investigate ...

The present study seeks to contribute to qualitative research on students’ perspectives on bystander behaviors to better understand their behaviors in bullying situations. Researchers have found th ...

This study investigated associations of general and specific parental self-efficacy factors with bullying and peer victimization behaviors among 142 fourth and fifth graders and their parents. Using structural equation modeling, exploratory factor analysis was used to examine one general parenting self-efficacy measure and a bullying-specific parent self-efficacy measure. The latter produced two unique factors: (a) self-efficacy to know when one’s child is bullied, and (b) self-efficacy to respond to one’s child being bullied. Child reports of bullying and peer victimization were simultaneously regressed on the three (i.e., one general and two specific) parent self-efficacy factors. Findings revealed that parental self-efficacy to know when one’s child is bullied was uniquely and negatively associated with both bullying and victimization. Additionally, and contrary to expectations, parental self-efficacy to respond when one’s child is being bullied was uniquely and positively associated with victi...

One evaluation measure available through the Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports framework is the Effective Behavior Support Self-Assessment Survey (SAS). Evaluations of the SAS have supported its factor structure. However, the SAS is designed to be completed by school personnel who are nested within other levels of analysis (e.g., schools, grade level, district). There have been no studies examining the SAS from a multilevel perspective. The current study addressed this gap by evaluating the SAS using data from 1,726 respondents across 36 public schools in 3 school districts. Another purpose of this study was to evaluate whether the SAS can be shortened yet remain psychometrically sound to encourage completion of the survey by busy school staff members. Intraclass correlation coefficients indicated substantial dependence in item responses. Factor correlations were substantial across all models tested. Compared with a 2nd-order, hierarchical model and the basic 4-factor model based on the original hypothesized structure of the SAS, the best combination of fit and parsimony was obtained from a reduced set of 24 of the original 46 items organized within a multilevel bifactor structure (e.g., comparative fit index = .979, root-mean-square error of approximation = .019), suggesting that the SAS may be shortened. The bifactor model partitioned item variances to a general implementation fidelity factor and to 1 of the 4 hypothesized factors. These results suggest that the SAS items aim to describe dimensions for measuring implementation status that may be as relevant at the school level as they are at the individual level. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

School climate has been established as an important construct to measure because of its connections to student psychological, social, and academic outcomes (Anderson, 1982; Koth, Bradshaw, & Leaf, 2008; Kuperminc, Leadbeater, Emmons, & Blatt, 1997). Prior research has also established relationships between student perceptions of school climate and individual (i.e., race and ethnicity, gender), classroom (i.e., class size, academic environment), and school (i.e., school size, teacher characteristics) cultural factors. While these variables provide insight into the ways that students come to experience school climate differently, there still remains a need to examine the effect of additional cultural and ecological variables that also have a proximal effect on students' school experiences and perceptions of climate. The current paper presents the Cultural-Ecological Model of School Climate as a method for understanding the interrelationships between personal characteristics, culture, ecological contexts, an...

The current study used a qualitative design informed by indigenous research methodologies to describe how indigenous African healers and their clients address Western-defined mental health problems. Healers for this study included Orìsà priests initiated within the Yorùbá-based system of Ifá. Two research questions guided this inquiry: (1) How do Orìsà priests and their clients conceptualize issues and concerns associated with mental health problems in Western psychology (2) What methods and techniques do Orìsà priests and their clients use to address issues and concerns associated with mental health problems in Western psychology? Data were collected during semistructured individual interviews with Orìsà priests in a three-phase model. The study also included focus groups with informants who sought the services of Orìsà priests. A combined total of 18 interviews were conducted that included 22 separate respondents residing within the southeastern United States. The following steps were employed to enhance methodological rigor: (1) bracketing of assumptions by the research team members, (2) use of a reflexive journal, (3) member checking, and (4) an audit trail. Data analysis consisted of a recursive process divided into multiple steps including codebook development, code application, and data analysis. Three major themes emerged from the data: (1) Conceptualization of Mental Health Problems as Spiritual Matters, (2) Origins of Mental Health Problems, and (3) Addressing Mental Health Problems. Results of this study indicate that respondents primarily conceptualize mental health problems as spiritual matters and seek to address these concerns with an Orìsà priest first. Practice and research implications for psychologists are discussed.

The Participatory Culture-Specific Model of Course Development (PCSMCD), adapted from the Participatory Culture-Specific Intervention Model, is a proposed framework to address challenges to social justice education by addressing the following four course variables: instructor characteristics, instructor experiences, student characteristics, and student experiences. This article proposes a new model through which qualitative and survey culture-specific data related to the 4 variables are collected at the onset of the course and incorporated into every phase of course development and implementation. Obtaining and utilizing data about student and instructor characteristics and experiences facilitates both culture specificity and ensure that the course content and process are both appropriate and acceptable for students and instructors. This article proposes the 10-phase PCSMCD as it would look during course development and implementation, and provides social justice resources and activities specific to schoo...

Introduction: Youth from low-income, urban backgrounds face significant challenges to maintaining a positive developmental trajectory. Dangerous neighborhoods and stressed relationships are common in these settings and threaten adaptation by weakening the natural assets that undergird resilience. African American girls in these contexts face specific, multiple risks, including gender stereotyping, violence, and sexual exploitation. The commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) is a multibillion-dollar industry victimizing over 1 million children around the globe.1 The typical victim in 1 city in the southeastern United States is an African American girl 12-14 years old. There has been little research investigating the characteristics of girls placed at risk for CSEC and even less research on the personal perspectives of these girls. Methods: Over 3 school terms we provided preventive intervention groups for 36 African American middle school girls who were placed at risk because they lived in neighborhoods with high rates of interpersonal violence and CSEC. Two group leaders and a process recorder took detailed notes on each group session. Our focus on group conversations over a period of weeks increased the probability of recording spontaneous, open comments by the children and is a promising method with this population. The data were analyzed qualitatively and resulted in an account of the girls’ own views of the environmental challenges and personal experiences that may influence their development.Results: The girls’ language during the group sessions contained 4 themes: difficulty forming trusting relationships, frequent peer aggression, familiarity with adult prostitution, and sexuality as a commodity.Conclusion: Our research shows how girls placed at risk for CSEC view their own lives. These children described violence and sexual exploitation and cited limited supports to protect them from these risks. Understanding the perspectives of these girls should generate future research and intervention strategies to support their coping and resilience. [West J Emerg Med. 2013;14(4):370–376.]

This article discusses the significance of adult connections for adolescents' sense of school belonging and identifies areas for future research and practice by (a) exploring the influence of adult connections on adolescents' sense of school belonging; (b) reviewing the literature regarding school belonging outcomes; (c) identifying potential barriers to building adult connections and school belonging; (d) presenting school improvement initiatives that hold promise for facilitating adult connections and school belonging; and (e) introducing a research and practice agenda that underscores the need for further investigation into the relationship between adult connections and school belonging. This proposed agenda represents an important addition to the literature by advocating for an increased focus on the process and significance of these relationships during adolescence, emphasizing adult connections and school belonging in school improvement initiatives, and indicating how adult connections can promote p...

The present qualitative study explored the perceptions of this group of adolescents regarding what technology they use, what they view as constructive uses of technology, and their perceptions of cyberbullying and cybervictimization. A total of 18 lesbian, gay, and bisexual (LGB) adolescents participated in semistructured interviews. Many of the participants indicated that they use texting and social networking forms of technology, while few reported engaging with gaming technology. Results indicated technology provided support for this sample of LGB youth who might otherwise feel more isolated and/or depressed in relation to their heterosexually identified peers. In addition, this sample reported sexual orientation and revenge as reasons why students were targets of cyberbullying. These findings were consistent with prior research with non-LGB samples. Grounded in moral disengagement theory, the findings and implications of this study were interpreted within the context of prior research on technology us...

This article presents the conceptual foundations and specific features of an ecologically oriented model of school-based organizational consultation. We begin by providing an overview of ecological theory. This is followed by a brief description of a model of school-based organizational consultation with a special focus on the ecological elements of the approach. Next, several trends in educational service delivery (i.e., high-stakes educational assessment, Response to Intervention, Positive Behavior Supports, school climate, and social justice) that require substantial systemic changes are discussed. These trends highlight the need for effective ecological approaches to organizational consultation. We present recommendations regarding how an ecologically oriented model of school-based consultation might be used to facilitate systemic change efforts in relation to the educational trends discussed.

Victimization resulting from bullying affects millions of school children worldwide each year (e.g. Nansel et al., 2001; Sapouna, 2008; Smokowski & Kopasz, 2005). These children face the fear and humiliation of verbal, physical, and relational aggression and as a result, often suffer psychological ill effects (e.g. Kochenderfer-Ladd, & Skinner, 2002). This study examined the coping strategies of victims of bullying using qualitative research methodology. One-hundred-and-two fourth through eighth grade students participated in group interviews discussing the topics of bullying and coping with victimization. A coping model emerged from this study that included the primary categories of problem-focused coping and emotion-focused coping, and eight subcategories, self-defense, stand up to the bully, seeking social support, distancing, internalizing, tension-reduction/externalizing, focus on the positive, and self-blame. Results revealed that problem-focused coping was the type of coping most often used by victims of bullying. Externalizing and seeking social support were the most commonly reported problem-focused coping strategies used by victims. Boys discussed using externalizing strategies with greater frequency than girls, whereas girls reported seeking social support more often than boys. Results also indicated that children generally found their implemented strategies to be ineffective in resolving their problem. Implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.

Cyberbullying can have a variety of negative effects on student mental health (Internet Safety Technical Task Force, 2008). An understanding of students’ coping with cyberbullying could help researchers and professionals to determine ways to alleviate and/or prevent the negative effects of cyberbullying. Qualitative methods were used to provide an in-depth examination of coping with cyberbullying. The results revealed three primary coping themes as follows: reactive coping, preventive coping, and no way to prevent cyberbullying. Reactive coping included avoiding the cyberbully situation by deleting or ignoring messages. Preventive coping strategies included talk in person and increased security and awareness. Some students reported that there was no way to reduce cyberbullying. These strategies were interpreted in terms of current theories of coping and findings suggested a need for a new comprehensive model of coping with cyberbullying. In addition, implications for future research and practice were discussed.

Teasing is a prevalent behavior in schools that can result in both positive and negative outcomes for students. This article presents an exploratory investigation into teachers' perceptions of teasing in schools, an underrepresented perspective in the literature. Semistructured interviews with 28 teachers of grades 4–8 revealed complex decision-making processes regarding how they differentiate between teasing and bullying interactions and how they select and implement interventions. These processes suggested that teachers conceptualize teasing as a prosocial or an antisocial behavior. Implications and opportunities for future research also are discussed.

The purpose of this research was to investigate the relationship between handedness, reading skills, and reading-related cognitive processes. Although lateralised differences in brain functioning are well known, research regarding handedness, specific reading skills, and reading-related cognitive processes is ambiguous at best because handedness is often measured as a dichotomous variable rather than a continuous variable. This methodological difference contributes to the diverse research findings, therefore the present investigation addressed these methodological limitations. A large normative sample of up to 1383 participants who ranged in age from 4 to 80 completed the Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Revised (WoodcockJohnson, 1989a, 1989b) or the Woodcock Johnson Psycho-Educational Battery-Third Edition (Woodcock, McGrew,Mather, 2001) in combination with the Dean Woodcock Sensory Motor Battery (DeanWoodcock, 2003) lateral preference scale, a continuous measure of handedness. Polynomial multiple regression analyses indicated curvilinear relationships between handedness and reading skills, along with handedness and auditory working memory. Individuals towards the extremes of the handedness continuum performed less well on the reading-related tasks. Therefore, just knowing a general classification of right, left, or mixed handed will not provide significant knowledge regarding lateralisation or potential cognitive and academic consequences but rather knowledge of an individual's hand preference on a continuum may well be useful for evaluative purposes.

Perspectives regarding bullying of gay, lesbian, and questioning (GLQ) students were obtained from 16 school and community service providers in this exploratory study. Insights were gained regarding in-school responses to homophobic bullying threats beyond traditional punishments (e.g., suspension). Barriers to developing safe schools for GLQ students included passive school personnel, a conservative religious climate, victim blaming, and blindness to GLQ students. Facilitators to improving school climate and preventing GLQ bullying also were identified.

A recent qualitative review by Wood, Froh, and Geraghty (2010) cast doubt on the efficacy of gratitude interventions, suggesting the need to carefully attend to the quality of comparison groups. Accordingly, in a series of meta-analyses, we evaluate the efficacy of gratitude interventions (ks = 4-18; Ns = 395-1,755) relative to a measurement-only control or an alternative-activity condition across 3 outcomes (i.e., gratitude, anxiety, psychological well-being). Gratitude interventions outperformed a measurement-only control on measures of psychological well-being (d = .31, 95% confidence interval [CI = .04, .58]; k = 5) but not gratitude (d = .20; 95% CI [-.04, .44]; k = 4). Gratitude interventions outperformed an alternative-activity condition on measures of gratitude (d = .46, 95% CI [.27, .64]; k = 15) and psychological well-being (d = .17, 95% CI [.09, .24]; k = 20) but not anxiety (d = .11, 95% CI [-.08, .31]; k = 5). More-detailed subdivision was possible on studies with outcomes assessing psychological well-being. Among these, gratitude interventions outperformed an activity-matched comparison (d = .14; 95% CI [.01, .27]; k = 18). Gratitude interventions performed as well as, but not better than, a psychologically active comparison (d = -.03, 95% CI [-.13, .07]; k = 9). On the basis of these findings, we summarize the current state of the literature and make suggestions for future applied research on gratitude. (PsycINFO Database Record

Defending behaviors by bystanders in bullying situations have been associated with decreases in the frequency and negative effects of bullying incidents. The current study utilized qualitative methodology to investigate the role of perceived school personnel support and nonsupport in students' decisions to display defending behaviors. Forty-six semi-structured interviews were conducted with upper-elementary (n=26) and middle school (n=20) students in the southeastern United States. Qualitative data were analyzed using constant comparison and a recursive inductive-deductive approach. The findings resulted in the conceptualization of a combined social support-nonsupport framework that provides details about the source, description, evaluation, and perceived effects of different types of support and nonsupport bystanders receive from school personnel. Unique contributions to the literature included expanding the sources of support and nonsupport to consider school personnel other than teachers, providing descriptions and evaluations of support and nonsupport specific to bystanders, and demonstrating an overlap between various types of support and nonsupport reiterating the need to consider both supports and nonsupports concurrently. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

SUMMARY The purpose of the Peer Victimization Intervention (PVI) was to develop and implement a culture-specific pilot intervention to address the effects of bullying on middle school students who are victims utilizing the Participatory Culture-Specific Intervention Model (PCSIM; Nastasi, Moore, & Varjas, 2004). The involvement of participants who serve as cultural brokers in the system and/or stakeholders was used to encourage acceptability, integrity, ecological validity, sustainability, and institutionalization of the intervention. The pilot intervention was conducted in an urban, multiethnic school system and implemented during the school day by a multidisciplinary team of service providers. Twenty-eight students (11 sixth graders, 13 seventh graders, 4 eighth graders) participated in a 6-session pilot intervention group. Qualitative and quantitative data were collected from the students and cofacilitators of each group to assess acceptability, integrity, and efficacy. Quantitative pilot data indicate...

Gay, lesbian, bisexual, transgender, questioning, and intersex (i.e., sexual minority) youth are often targets of aggression because of their sexual identity, both in and out of schools. Literature on school-related aggression toward sexual minority youth often relies on quantitative surveys or retrospective studies. Little non-retrospective research has been done with this population investigating the nature of bullying, school climate, and the effects of being a sexual minority youth in schools. Sixteen sexual minority high school youth participated in face-to-face, in-depth interviews. Results for the themes from these interviews are presented in four categories: Sexual minorities' overall perspective on their school climate, the nature of aggression in schools against sexual minorities when present, the characteristics of the victims and bullies, and the consequences of being a sexual minority in schools. These youth's perspectives provide support for existing literature on the nature of bull...

Teachers know that when families are involved meaningfully in schools, students perform better in academic, behavioral, and emotional domains. This article describes a project designed to enhance the quality of children's literacy interactions with family members and simultaneously increase family involvement at school. The level of participation of a classroom teacher is key in implementing a family literacy support program in a low-income neighborhood.

Existing literature details many forms of harassment against sexual minority youth, including those behaviors that are present in schools. School and community service providers, such as counselors and psychologists, often witness first-hand the bullying that occurs in schools. Through their direct contact with sexual minority youth, they remain knowledgeable of current school environments facing these youth. Their perspectives on bullying of this population, however, are lacking. Sixteen school and community service providers participated in face-to-face, in-depth interviews regarding their perceptions and observations of general bullying and specific bullying of GLBTQI youth. The principles of grounded theory are used to analyze the data, which resulted in themes on bullying of GLQ youth. Results on these themes are presented in six main categories: Types and Locations of Bullying, Characteristics of Victims, Characteristics of Bullies, Effects of Bullying, Victim Response, and “Non-Targets.” T...

This article underscores the potential advantages of qualitative methods to illustrate the depth and complexity of social validity. This investigation evaluates the social validity of Check and Connect with Early Literacy Support (CCEL) , through the perspectives of teachers and caregivers whose children participated in the intervention. Teachers from six classrooms and caregivers from six families participated in evaluating the social validity of this intervention using a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods. Participants completed the Treatment Acceptability Rating Scale—Revised ( TARF-R ; Reimers, T. M., Wacker, D. P., Cooper, L. J. & DeRaad, A. O. (1992). Clinical evaluation of the variables associated with treatment acceptability and their relation to compliance. Behavioral Disorders , 18(1), 67–76.), a quantitative measure of treatment acceptability (a component of social validity), and were interviewed using qualitative interviews and focus groups. Results were analyzed through ethnographic methodology and indicate complex, reciprocal relationships among factors related to social validity. This investigation is considered in light of recent efforts to develop a systematic approach to evaluate the adequacy of intervention research using qualitative methods.

The Invitational Conference on the Future of School Psychology held at Indiana University in 2002 had implications for consultation. It addressed projected shortages in school psychologists that provide a rationale for service delivery models integrating consultation and prevention. The conference discussed the need for effective work with children, families, and professionals from diverse cultures; success in fostering productive home-school connections; optimal and ethical use of rapidly changing technologies; and the use of empirical evidence to inform practice. This article presents a model of consultation and prevention informed by recent research in positive psychology as well as public health models. This model is discussed in the context of these and other important developments in the field of school psychology.

One factor that contributes to adolescent positive mental health is active engagement. Engagement is defined as any activity that is initiated to attain an outcome. In general, two forms of activities exist that correspond with engagement: solitary, non-structured, and non-cooperative pursuits, often without adult supervision (e.g., playing video games, watching television) and highly structured, collaborative activities that are under the guidance of a competent set of adults (i.e., structured extracurricular activities, or SEAs). Although large amounts of time spent in unstructured activities is related to negative psychosocial outcomes, participation in SEAs has been related to a variety of positive outcomes for students. This paper reviews current research regarding adolescent participation in SEAs and its effects on academic and personal-social variables (i.e., self-concept, life satisfaction), as well as potential preventive effects for youths considered to be “at-risk” for negative developmental outcomes. The paper also examines research investigating the potential benefits and shortcomings of different types of SEAs. Finally, suggestions for future research and school-based preventive intervention are presented. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Psychol Schs 41: 31–41, 2004.

The Invitational Conference on the Future of School Psychology held at Indiana University in Fall 2002 included a number of paper presentations and group discussions. Toward the end of the conferen...

The present study addresses school violence and school drop out and proposes that the underlying factor of school connectedness/school climate should guide preventive and intervention efforts. Data were gathered from five schools in a small city school district in north Georgia. Group and individual interviews served as the basis for constructing a 78-item district-wide survey administered to 304 school employees. Data are presented on individual items from the survey. Principal components analysis revealed five distinct factors: school connectedness/positive school climate, causes of violence, causes of school drop out, interventions for drop out, and interventions for violence. The principal components analysis was the basis for construction of a revised scale. Differences between revised scale scores were noted as a function of whether respondents were from central office, elementary or secondary schools. The five revised scales had correlation ranging from .31 to .59. Implications for research and practice are discussed. © 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Student perceptions of school climate represent the ways students feel about the school environment. These include perceptions regarding safety, teaching and learning, and relationships within the school. It has been found that student perceptions of school climate are positively correlated with academic achievement (Brookover et al., 1978), and negatively correlated with risky behaviors (Bandyopadhyay, Cornell, & Konold, 2009; Bayar & Ucanok, 2012; Wang, Berry, & Swearer, 2013). The Georgia Brief School Climate Inventory (GaBSCI) is a measure of student perceptions of school climate. The brevity of the 9-item instrument makes it ideal as a general measure that can be used to monitor student perceptions of school climate. The survey was anonymously administered to 130,968 sixth- and eighth-grade students in the state of Georgia. Cronbach's alpha for the scale was 0.71. Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses verified the scale's structure. Student perceptions of climate from the GaBSCI varied based on race/ethnicity, gender, and grade. Additional support for the construct validity of the GaBSCI was obtained based on its relationships with several behaviors related to bullying, and the moderating effects of grade and gender on these relationships. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Despite recent attention to shared decision making as an approach to school reform, relatively little research has been conducted on the topic, and much of that research has relied on interviews and field notes, rather than systematic observation of team functioning. This investigation integrated systematic observations and interviews. The purpose of this study was to describe the leadership behaviors exhibited by principals, team leaders, and other team members (teachers, parents, students). We defined leadership according to team member contributions to decisions (decision content, decision-making processes, and statement function, such as initiating topics and making suggestions). This investigation used a comparative case study approach to examine the shared decision-making teams from three schools during the teams' first year. Results revealed variability in leadership across the three teams. Two teams were characterized by positive group process procedures with active involvement from a number of te...

The research and practice of consultation, by nature and definition, affect people from across the range of human diversity. The emergent literature of cross-cultural consultation, including the co...

This article provides an introduction to the mini-series theme, Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Consultation in Schools: Cultural Diversity Issues in School Consultation. It discusses the context,...

Recently, developmentally appropriate practices have been distinguished from traditional practices and have been advocated as one way to reform primary general education classrooms. Relatively little research has examined the efficacy of developmentally appropriate versus traditional practices. In particular, concerns have been raised about the effectiveness of this approach for students with disabilities. This study examined the relationship between primary teachers' implementation of developmentally appropriate and traditional teaching methods and the mathematics achievement of general and special education students. Observations, interviews and questionnaires were used to measure the mathematics teaching practices used with general and special education students. Because developmentally appropriate and traditional teaching practices are often characterized in terms of a continuum, principal components methods were used to generate continuous composite variables that described teacher presentation, mate...

This research addressed two questions about instruction to enhance the social competence of students with disabilities: (a) How adequate were individualized education program (IEP) statements of present level of functioning and goals related to peer interactions? and (b) How appropriate to pupil peer interaction needs and how extensive was instruction? Data sources included IEPs; observations of pupils and teachers in content area, special area, and special education settings; and interviews. Analysis indicated that the IEP accurately characterized peer interactions, but that instructional practices to foster peer interaction were not appropriate, and were provided only to a limited extent. General education settings were somewhat more likely than special education settings to foster peer interaction, providing support for claims that inclusion fosters social integration.

Prereferral intervention teams provide consultation to teachers using a problem-solving process to better serve students, provide teachers with skills to assist future students, and prevent inappro...

(1997). A Novel Methodology for Describing Integration Practices. Exceptionality: Vol. 7, No. 4, pp. 263-266.

This paper is an examination of the influence Jack Bardon had on school psychology throughout his career from 1952 to 1993. A summary of this influence is presented that is based on a review of his publications and a survey of three groups of school psychologists (certificate-level Nationally Certified School Psychologists, doctoral-level Nationally Certified School Psychologists, and fellows of the American Psychological Association, Division 16). Those areas in which Jack Bardon has made a substantial impact are as follows: role and definition of school psychology; professional organization issues; debate over level of training; and consultation. These are discussed along with a comparison of how Jack Bardon's influence differs across the three groups represented in the sample.

A positive attitude toward mainstreaming or inclusion among general education teachers is necessary, although not sufficient, for the success of the Regular Education Initiative. Previous research assessing general education teacher views is limited by an emphasis on questionnaire methodology and failure to account for teacher experience with integrated programs. This study sought to overcome these limitations by using interviews supplemented by a range of qualitative data to clarify the context in which the data were gathered. In this study, the views of general education teachers participating in integrated pull-in programs were compared to those of colleagues whose students were served by pull-out programs. Support for integrated programs and novel categories of responses emerged in this process, as did group differences. Pull-in teachers stressed that pull-in met student needs and provided benefits to the teacher and the class, whereas pull-out teachers were less positive about pull-in and emphasized ...

(1996). The Role of the Researcher as Change Agent. Exceptionality: Vol. 6, No. 2, pp. 125-128.