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Emotional and behavioral problems (EBPs), such as anxiety, overactivity, and aggression, can influence the diagnosis of autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The gold standard diagnostic tool for ASD, the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule—Second Edition, includes three items (“E-codes”) for EBPs that are frequently associated with ASD. Few empirical investigations have explored the use of E-codes. This study examined the relationship between E-codes and child characteristics (e.g., cognitive abilities, ASD symptom severity) in a sample of young children with ASD (N = 233). Findings indicated that E-codes positively correlated with ASD symptom severity and negatively associated with IQ. Symptom severity also significantly accounted for the variance in EBPs. Implications for ASD assessment as well as future research are discussed.

Limited research has explored mothers’ perceptions of teachers’ pedagogical practices that may or may not support the learning and development of their child with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Mo...

Objective: Transition from school to early adulthood incurs many changes and may be associated with deterioration in general health in youth with autism. We aimed to investigate this.Method: The National Longitudinal Transitions Study-2 is a USA nationally representative sample of youth receiving special education services, aged 13–17 at wave 1, followed-up over 10 years in five data collection waves. We conducted random-effects ordered logistic regressions to determine the odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals of wave, age, sex, ethnicity/race, additional intellectual disabilities, parental/guardian relationship status, and household income being associated with general health status in youth with autism.Results: Across waves, only between 74.3%–69.6% had excellent/very good health (71.7%–58.8% in those with co-occurring intellectual disabilities), but wave was not associated with health status. Associations were with age OR = 1.18 (1.04, 1.33), co-occurring intellectual disabilities OR = 1.56 (1.00, 2.44), and household income OR = 0.61 (0.40, 0.94) at $30,001–$50,000, OR = 0.44 (0.27, 0.72) at $50,001–$70,000, and OR = 0.34 (0.20, 0.56) at $70,001+. Sex, ethnicity/race, and parental/guardian relationship status were not associated with health status.Conclusion: There was little change in general health status longitudinally across the transitional period, but the proportion with excellent/very good health was low at each wave. Transitional planning should consider co-occurring intellectual disabilities, and the wider socioeconomic context in which children/youth with autism are raised. Lack of other longitudinal studies indicates a need for replication.

Background: Teenage youth with co-morbid intellectual disability (ID) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD) could be at higher risk for behavioral and social difficulties than youth with ID only. Meth...

Background: The Social Motivation Hypothesis proposes that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) experience social interactions as less rewarding than their neurotypical (TD) peers, which may lead to reduced social initiation. Existing studies of the brain's reward system in individuals with ASD report varied findings for anticipation of and response to social rewards. Given discrepant findings, the anticipation of and response to social rewards should be further evaluated, particularly in the context of intervention outcome. We hypothesized that individual characteristics may help predict neural changes from pre- to post-intervention.Methods: Thirteen adolescents with ASD received the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS) intervention for 16 weeks; reward-related EEG was collected before and after intervention. Fourteen TD adolescents were tested at two timepoints but did not receive intervention. Event-related potentials were calculated to measure anticipation of (stimulus-preceding negativity; SPN) and response to (reward-related positivity; RewP) social and non-social rewards. Additionally, measures of social responsiveness, social skills, and intervention-engagement were collected. Group differences were analyzed as well as individual differences using prediction models.Result: Parent-reported social responsiveness and social skills improved in adolescents with ASD after participation in PEERS. ASD adolescents displayed marginally decreased anticipation of social rewards at post-intervention compared to pre-intervention. Regression models demonstrated that older adolescents and those with lower parent-reported social motivation prior to participation in PEERS displayed marginally increased social reward anticipation (more robust SPN) from pre- to post-intervention. Participants who displayed more parent-reported social motivation before intervention and were more actively engaged in the PEERS intervention evidenced increased social reward processing (more robust RewP) from pre- to post-intervention.Conclusion: Findings suggest that there may be differences in saliency between wanting/anticipating social rewards vs. liking/responding to social rewards in individuals with ASD. Our findings support the hypothesis that identification of individual differences may predict which adolescents are poised to benefit the most from particular interventions. As such, reported findings set the stage for the advancement of “precision medicine.” This investigation is a critical step forward in our ability to understand and predict individual response to interventions in individuals with ASD.

There is minimal research regarding the personal experiences and perceptions of youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Yet, the positive and negative perceptions that youth internalize about their diagnoses are crucial, as they may have a strong impact on individuals' self-concept and well-being. This paper utilizes mixed methods to describe the perceptions of 38 adolescents with ASD about their diagnoses, as elicited via semi-structured interviews. Quantitative analyses explore links between youths' perceptions and other aspects of their social-emotional well-being. Implications are highlighted regarding the importance of shifting the narrative that individuals with ASD develop about themselves and their diagnoses.

Background and aims High quality student–teacher relationships (STR) are important for children's academic and social development. We explore how individual child language domains (semantics, syntax, pragmatics), teacher years of experience, and classroom placement (general or special education) relate to STR quality for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) across the school year. Methods and procedures 191 children with ASD (Mage = 5.6 years) completed a standardized language assessment and their teachers reported on STR quality twice during the school year. Outcome and results Pragmatics, but not semantics or syntax, had a direct effect on student–teacher closeness. The association between semantics and closeness was moderated by classroom type; for students with low semantics, teacher-reported closeness was lower in general versus special education. Teachers in special versus general education classrooms reported closer relationships. More experienced teachers reported closer and less conflictual relationships. None of the three language domains were associated with student–teacher conflict. Conclusions and implications Pragmatic and semantic language skills were associated with closer relationships. Language-focused therapies may be effective in carrying over to impact STR quality. Given the stability in relationship quality, targeted interventions should be delivered to teachers at the beginning of the school year to support positive relationship development.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) vary greatly in social functioning, and in turn, long-term relational and academic outcomes. Responsive parenting which follows a child's lead and focus of attention is predictive of language and social gains for children with or without developmental risk. The present study prospectively assessed 176 families of children with ASD (ages 4 to 7 years) to examine predictors of observed responsive parenting and associations of responsive parenting with concurrent and prospective growth in social functioning by multi-method assessment. Responsive parenting concurrently associated with child characteristics (IQ, language, sex) and child social engagement within the interaction. Structural equation models revealed that responsive parenting positively predicted prospective growth in social skills by teacher but not parent report.

Background Challenges in adaptive behaviors are present in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), while variation in IQ, social skills, and comorbidities are possible influences on adaptive behaviors. However, adaptive behaviors do not consistently map onto cognitive abilities in ASD, as high IQ is not protective against challenges in adaptive behaviors. Additionally, individuals with both ASD and elevated levels of externalizing problem behaviors experience even worse adaptive behaviors. Identifying factors that contribute to the variance in adaptive behaviors, particularly daily living skills (DLS), may inform strategies to improve adaptive behaviors necessary for independence in adulthood. Method Adolescents with typical cognitive development (TD, n = 84), intellectual disability (ID, n = 30), or ASD (n = 45) were included in this study to examine group differences in adaptive behaviors, identify relations between IQ and DLS, and determine factors that contribute to variance in DLS at youth age 13. The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, 2nd Edition (VABS-II) was used to measure adaptive behaviors. Results All domains of adaptive behavior were significantly higher in TD groups compared to ASD and ID youth. Significant positive correlations were observed between IQ and DLS in the ASD and ID groups. In the ASD youth group, higher externalizing behavior problems explained the most variance in DLS. Conclusions DLS are below age-expected levels in young adolescents with ASD, in part because of the higher externalizing behavior problems in this group. Incorporating adaptive skills training and behavior management strategies into current interventions may serve to prepare adolescents and families for the transition to adulthood.

Emerging research suggests that caregiving environments and genetic variants independently contribute to social functioning in children with typical development or autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, biologically plausible interactive models and complimentary assessment of mechanisms are needed to: (a) explain considerable social heterogeneity, (b) resolve inconsistencies in the literature, and (c) develop and select optimal treatments based on individual differences. This study examined the role of child genotypes and responsive parenting in the social development of 104 children with ASD (ages 4-7 years). We utilized a longitudinal, multi-informant design and structural equation models to evaluate: (a) the additive and interactive effects of biologically plausible candidate genes (5-HTTLPR, OXTR, DRD4) and responsive parenting in predicting prospective social development in ASD across three time points spanning 1.5 years, and (b) whether child emotion regulation mediated observed gene x environment interactions (GxEs). Responsive parenting positively predicted prospective change in child social skills; these associations were moderated by 5-HTTLPR and DRD4 in teacher-report models, and DRD4 in parent-report models. No GxE effects were found for OXTR. Emotion regulation did not significantly mediate the GxEs involving 5-HTTLPR and DRD4. Acknowledging the complexities of GxE research, implications for future research, and targeted intervention efforts are discussed.

Background:\ud There has been little prior investigation of the general health of young people with intellectual disabilities across transition, nor separately for youth with intellectual disabilities with or without Down syndrome, despite general health being a strong predictor of subsequent health service use, hospital admissions and mortality in the general population. We aimed to investigate general health status in youth with intellectual disabilities with and without Down syndrome over the transitional period and quantify the extent to which personal characteristics, parental relationship and household income are associated with general health status.\ud \ud Methods:\ud The National Longitudinal Transitions Study‐2 includes a nationally representative sample of youth receiving special education services aged 13–17 years at wave 1, followed up over 10 years in five waves of data collection. Data on general health status of youth with intellectual disabilities with and without Down syndrome were obtained from parent reports. We summarised overall demographics and general health status and plotted general health status for those who had health data available for all five waves. We then used random‐effects ordered logistic regression to investigate whether wave of data collection, age, sex, Down syndrome, ethnicity, parental relationship status and household income are associated with general health status.\ud \ud Results:\ud At wave 1, data on intellectual disabilities were available on 9008/9576 (94.1%) young people, and 871/9008 (9.7%) of them had intellectual disabilities, of whom 125/871 (14.4%) had Down syndrome. Youth with intellectual disabilities with or without Down syndrome had low rates of excellent or very good health. Across waves 1–5, there was a shallow gradient in the proportion of youth with intellectual disabilities reporting excellent/very good health, from 57.7% at 13–17 years to 52.6% at 21–25 years, being more marked for those without Down syndrome (57.8% at 13–17 years to 51.8% at 21–25 years). However, contrary to our expectations, an ordinal measure of general health status did not decline over this transitional period and did not differ between youth with and without Down syndrome. There was a gradient with higher income associated with better health, significantly so over $50 001 (odds ratio = 0.559, 95% confidence interval 0.366–0.854). Poorer health was experienced by youth with Hispanic, Latino or Spanish ethnicity (odds ratio = 1.790, 95% confidence interval 1.051–3.048). Female sex and parental relationship status were not associated with health status.\ud \ud Conclusions:\ud Young people with intellectual disabilities have bad health, and require support across all ages, including transition. Schools, teachers and staff in transitional services should consider health, and health care and support during transitional planning due to change in service provision and be aware of ethnicity and the stressful effects of low household income. This is important as interventions based on provision of greater support can prevent adverse consequences.

ASD symptomology and behavioral problems pose challenges for children with ASD in school. Disagreement between parents and teachers in ratings of children's behavior problems may provide clinically relevant information. We examined parent-teacher disagreement on ratings of behavior problems among children with ASD during the fall and spring of the school year. When child, teacher, and class characteristics were considered simultaneously, only ASD symptom severity predicted informant disagreement on internalizing and externalizing behavior problems. We also examined associations between informant disagreement and parent school involvement. Cross-lagged panel analyses revealed that higher informant disagreement on children's behavior problems in the fall predicted lower parent school involvement in the spring, suggesting that greater informant agreement may foster parental school involvement over time.

Disruptive behavior disorders and social skills were assessed in 187 youth aged 13 years, with typical cognitive development (TD n = 98), intellectual disability (ID n = 37), autism spectrum disorder (ASD, IQ > = 85, n = 26), or Autism Spectrum Disorder with ID (ASD/ID; IQ

The reward system has been implicated as a potential neural mechanism underlying social-communication deficits in individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, it remains unclear whether the neural reward system in ASD is sensitive to behavioral interventions. The current study measured the reward positivity (RewP) in response to social and nonsocial stimuli in seven adolescents with ASD before and after participation in the Program for the Education and Enrichment of Relational Skills (PEERS®) intervention. This study also included seven neurotypical adolescents who were tested at two time points but did not receive intervention. We examined the RewP across the course of a task by comparing brain activity during the first versus second half of trials to understand patterns of responsivity over time. Improvements in social skills and decreased social-communication impairments for teens with ASD were observed after PEERS®. Event-related potential (ERP) results suggested increased reward sensitivity during the first half of trials in the ASD group after intervention. Adolescents with ASD who exhibited less reward-related brain activity before intervention demonstrated the greatest behavioral benefits from the intervention. These findings have implications for how neuroscience can be used as an objective outcome measure before and after intervention in ASD.

The language and social skill deficits associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) warrant further study. Existing research has focused on the contributions of pragmatic language to social skills, with little attention to other aspects of language. We examined the associations across three language domains (semantics, syntax, and pragmatics) and their relations to parent- and teacher-rated social skills among children with ASD. When parent-reported language skills were considered simultaneously, only semantics significantly predicted children's social skills. For teacher-reported language skills, all three language domains predicted children's social skills, but none made unique contributions above and beyond one another. Further research should consider the impact of social context on language expectations and interventions targeting semantic language on children's development of social skills.

Introduction: We examined the development of anxiety in youth with or without intellectual disabilities (ID). We also examined the effects of child delay status, temperament, ethnicity, and...

The transition to school can be difficult for any child, but children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) encounter additional problems and obstacles during this time. ASD is a lifelong disorder. Yet, the earlier a child with ASD receives intervention, the more promising the long-term outcomes. One way for children to be identified with ASD before entering school is through yearly appointments with their primary care doctor. Under federal legislation of IDEA, children from birth to age three with, or at risk of having, developmental delays have a legal right to early intervention. However, not everyone has equal access to services. Geographical location, race, and socioeconomic status are a few factors that contribute to uneven access to interventions for families. Culturally sensitive providers should be aware of early signs of ASD and be knowledgeable about referring families to appropriate education and treatment. Ultimately, to close the service gap, parents who have children with ASD should be aware of their rights and how to navigate the system to receive treatment.

Background It is known that children with disabilities, especially adolescents with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), are at increased risk for victimization. However, little is known about the impact of victimization over time. Aims Primary aims included identifying to what extent risk factors (i.e., internalizing behavior problems and conflict in friendship) related to bullying victimization over time. Methods and procedures In-depth interviews conducted separately with 15-year-olds with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), intellectual disability (ID), or typical development (TD) and their mothers investigated the experiences of victimization in a two-year follow up to an earlier study at adolescent age 13. Outcomes and results Findings at age 15 demonstrated that the highest rates of bullying continued to be endorsed by youth with ASD. However, youth with ID were found to experience and report the most severe bullying. Longitudinal examination revealed that internalizing behaviors at age 13 predicted victimization experiences at age 15. Conclusions and implications During middle adolescence, youth with ASD continue to experience more frequent victimization. Thus, shifting the focus of interventions that not only target the salient social deficits of ASD, but also address comorbid conditions such as internalizing symptoms, may further contribute to reduction of social isolation and peer difficulties.

Increasingly, young adults with autism spectrum disorder are attending 4-year universities. The transition to adulthood can be challenging for these students, and university life poses its own set of demands. The present article takes a mixed-methods approach by including two studies utilizing complementary methodologies. Through in-depth interviews with students with autism spectrum disorder ( n = 13) and college professors ( n = 18), the purpose of the first study was to evaluate the experiences and needs of college students with autism spectrum disorder and identify the knowledge that faculty members possessed about working with these students. Through survey methodology with a larger sample of faculty members ( n = 132), the purpose of the second study was to obtain more information about faculty knowledge of autism spectrum disorder, and to learn whether their pedagogical practices accommodated students with autism spectrum disorder. Findings revealed that autism is often an “invisible” disability on campuses, and there are many things that professors need to know with regard to working with these students in particular. Implications for practice are discussed.

Author(s): Moody, CT; Baker, BL; Blacher, J | Abstract: BACKGROUND:Despite studies of how parent-child interactions relate to early child language development, few have examined the continued contribution of parenting to more complex language skills through the preschool years. The current study explored how positive and negative parenting behaviours relate to growth in complex syntax learning from child age 3 to age 4nyears, for children with typical development or developmental delays (DDs). METHODS:Participants were children with or without DD (Nn=n60) participating in a longitudinal study of development. Parent-child interactions were transcribed and coded for parenting domains and child language. Multiple regression analyses were used to identify the contribution of parenting to complex syntax growth in children with typical development or DD. RESULTS:Analyses supported a final model, F(9,50)n=n11.90, Pnln.001, including a significant three-way interaction between positive parenting behaviours, negative parenting behaviours and child delay status. This model explained 68.16% of the variance in children's complex syntax at age 4. Simple two-way interactions indicated differing effects of parenting variables for children with or without DD. CONCLUSIONS:Results have implications for understanding of complex syntax acquisition in young children, as well as implications for interventions.

We examined parents’ satisfaction with multiple aspects of their children’s individualized education programs (IEPs). Parents ( n = 142) raising children ages 4 to 8 years old with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) reported their satisfaction with four aspects of their children’s IEPs: (a) content of the IEP document, (b) services provided, (c) perceived level of agreement between the IEP document and the services actually provided, and (d) effectiveness of the IEP team. For each domain, just over half of families reported moderate to high satisfaction, whereas 61% of parents were dissatisfied with at least one of the four facets. Overall IEP satisfaction was positively associated with parent–school connectedness and family financial resources but was unrelated to child characteristics. Contrary to expectation, IEP satisfaction was negatively associated with teachers’ years of experience. Findings demonstrate the importance of parent–school relationships and highlight socioeconomic disparities in special education satisfaction.

This study identified trajectories of depressive symptoms among mothers of children with or without intellectual disability longitudinally across eight time points. Results of fitting a linear growth model to the data from child ages 3–9 indicated that child behavior problems, negative financial impact, and low dispositional optimism all significantly related to initial maternal depressive symptoms. Child behavior problems were significantly associated with changes in depressive symptoms over time, relating above and beyond child disability status. When looking from late childhood into early adolescence, hierarchical linear regression analysis revealed that maternal depressive symptoms at child age 9 and perceived financial impact significantly related to maternal depressive symptoms at child age 13. Implications for practice and future research directions are discussed.

Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) are at heightened risk for developing comorbid psychological disorders, including anxiety disorders, which may be further exacerbated by the presence of externalizing behaviors. Here, we examined how structural language and pragmatic language predicted anxiety and externalizing behaviors. Participants were 159 young children (4-7 years old) with ASD and their mothers. Utilizing structural equation modeling we examined associations among structural language, pragmatic language, anxiety symptoms, and externalizing behaviors. Pragmatic language, was inversely related to child anxiety and co-occurring externalizing behaviors. Structural language skills positively predicted child anxiety. These findings suggest that children with ASD may be at heightened risk for anxiety and externalizing disorders due to their pragmatic language deficits.

Initial intervention processes for children with intellectual disabilities (IDs) largely focused on direct efforts to impact core cognitive and academic deficits associated with the diagnosis. Recent research on risk processes in families of children with ID, however, has influenced new developmental system approaches to early intervention. Recent risk and resilience processes are reviewed that connect stress, family process, and the high rates of behavioral problems in children with ID that have substantial influence on child and family outcomes. These models are linked to emerging evidence-based intervention processes that focus on strategic parent skill training and mindfulness interventions that reduce parental stress and create indirect benefits for children's behavioral competencies. A family-focused developmental systems approach (M. J. Guralnick, 2011) is emphasized.

The purpose of this study was to identify how parents’ use of language and literacy strategies during an adapted shared book reading activity relate to social, behavioral, and cognitive skills for their children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Participants were 111 young children (ages 4–7 years) with ASD and their mothers. A factor analysis of the items used in the coding system, yielded a four-factor model of parent-led behaviors during the shared book reading activity: clarification, feedback, teaching, and evocative techniques. In regression analyses, the frequency of parents’ use of clarification, feedback, and evocative strategies used during the shared reading task were related to certain demographic and child factors. Results have implications for the types of structure and support that parents might provide their young children with ASD during informal reading sessions.

Disruptive behavior disorders were assessed in 160 youth aged 13 years, with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD, n = 48), intellectual disability (ID, n = 28), or typical development (TD, n = 84). Mothers' reported collateral effects on their psychological adjustment were related to both youth disability status and clinical level behavior disorders. More youth with ASD or ID had clinical level behavior disorders than their TD peers, and their mothers reported significantly higher personal stress and psychological symptoms, as well as lower positive impact of the youth on the family. The youth's clinical level behavior disorders accounted for these differences more than the diagnostic status. Mothers high in dispositional optimism reported the lowest stress and psychological symptoms in relationship to youth behavior challenges.

Student–teacher relationship (STR) quality during the early school years has important implications for student adjustment and outcomes. Studies with typically developing (TD) children have identified links between parent behaviors and STRs, but these connections remain unexplored for children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The present study investigated relationships between observed parent behaviors during a shared literacy task and STRs one year later for 117 children (ages 4–7) with ASD. Children whose parents displayed more intrusiveness had poorer-quality STRs. Further, parent intrusiveness mediated the predictive relationship between child spoken language skills and STR quality. These results suggest that parent intrusiveness plays an important role in the development of STRs for young children with ASD. Implications for intervention and research are discussed.

In an evaluation of Anglo and Latina mothers and their children at risk of autism, this study compared mother-reported child behavioral concerns to staff-observed symptoms of autism. Within Latina mothers, the impact of primary language (English/Spanish), mothers’ education, and child age on ratings of developmental concerns was examined. Participants were 218 mothers (Anglo = 85; Latina = 133) of children referred to a no-cost autism screening clinic. Mothers reported on behavioral concerns, autism symptomology, and services received; children were administered the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule by certified staff. Results revealed that Anglo and Latino children did not differ by autism symptoms or classification. However, Anglo mothers reported significantly more concerns than Latina mothers. Within the Latina group, analyses revealed significant interaction effects of language and child age; Spanish-speaking mothers of preschoolers endorsed fewer concerns, while Spanish-speaking mothers of school-aged children endorsed more concerns. Despite these reports, Anglo children with a classification of autism spectrum disorder were receiving significantly more services than Latino children with autism spectrum disorder, suggesting early beginnings of a service divide as well as the need for improved parent education on child development and advocacy for Latino families.

Background Having a child with intellectual disability impacts all family members, with both parents and siblings having to adjust. Negative impact on the typically developing sibling, specifically, has been shown to vary based on caregiving responsibilities and mothers’ stress level.Method This study gathered information from 238 Latina and Anglo mothers of young adults with intellectual disability to explore sibling negative impact related to maternal stress, positive feelings about parenting, sibling diagnostic category, and cultural group.Results Mothers experiencing more stress reported higher levels of sibling impact; mothers with more positive feelings about parenting reported lower levels of negative impact, with Latina mothers reporting higher levels of stress and positive feelings about parenting. Anglo mothers, however, were less likely to designate a sibling as a future caregiver.Conclusions These findings suggest culture and diagnostic classification should be given more attention rel...

The study of the impact of children or youth with intellectual and developmental disabilities on their families has grown increasingly complex. This is due, in part, to the multiple perspectives represented in research (e.g., mothers, fathers, siblings) and to the myriad of outcomes examined (e.g., negative vs. positive impact on families). Basic tenets set forth include encompassing theoretical models that can be used to integrate family research on impact, an evaluative discussion of the importance of child problem behaviors, and family socio-economic status as vital to the discussion of family stress. Parenting behaviors that influence impact are also identified, with attention to important moderators of family outcomes that further elucidate processes over and above main effects research. The article concludes with a discussion of promising directions that may alter the impact of youth with intellectual and developmental disabilities on the family.

Background Researchers have primarily relied on mother report to understand the parenting contexts of rearing children with intellectual disabilities. Fathers are increasingly being considered as equally important reporters of their child's behaviours, as they have unique and independent relationships with their children. The purpose of this study was to understand how one source of stress – reports of child behaviour problems – along with spousal support related to parenting tasks, associated with fathers' reports of psychological symptoms over time. Method One hundred eighty-two father participants completed measures of child behaviour problems, spousal support and psychological symptoms. Growth curve modelling was employed to examine paternal psychological symptoms over the child's developmental trajectory. Results Fathers' reports of child behaviour problems predicted initial levels of paternal psychological symptoms but did not predict change in paternal psychological symptoms over time. Spousal support further reduced initial levels of paternal psychological symptoms. Conclusions Child behaviour problems are more important than disability status in predicting father's psychological symptoms. Spousal support predicts paternal psychological symptoms and can be viewed as an additional resource for fathers. Implications for research and practice are discussed.

Background The successful inclusion of youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in neuroimaging research is imperative for advancing our understanding of the neurobiological underpinnings of ASD. In order to generate knowledge that is representative of all affected youth, it is essential to include participants who are culturally and linguistically diverse. However, these families often face barriers to participation in neuroimaging research, including distrust and limited knowledge about research, above and beyond any challenges associated with ASD (e.g., behaviors, sensory hypersensitivities). Method This study included a diverse group of Spanish- and English-speaking parents of children with ASD (N = 79) to examine the impact of a social story on (a) their understanding of EEG study procedures and (b) their likelihood to enroll in a neuroimaging study. Results Both English- and Spanish-speaking parents who viewed a social story demonstrated better understanding of EEG procedures than parents who read a written explanation, with Spanish-speaking parents also perceiving their understanding to be better in the social story condition. Although parents who viewed a social story were not more likely to participate in neuroimaging research than parents who read a written description, they were less likely to indicate needing more information and more likely to cite their child’s specific behavior problems as the rationale for unlikelihood to participate. Conclusion These results suggest that social stories may be effective tools in the informed consent process for promoting parent understanding of neuroimaging procedures, and useful during recruitment to aid parents in determining whether their child with ASD will be successful in a neuroimaging study.

Relationships between early literacy measures (i.e., curriculum-based measurement) and advanced literacy measures (i.e., reading comprehension) were examined in young children with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs). Participants in this study were 167 children between the ages of 4 and 7 years (M = 5 years 8 months), who were assessed at 2 time points during 1 school year. Results indicated that, compared to other measures of early literacy skills, curriculum-based measurements (CBMs) accurately assessed skills in students with ASD. Furthermore, early literacy skills predicted reading comprehension approximately six months later in this sample. The reading development of children with ASD compared to typically developing children appears to be similar in the predictive capacity of decoding skills on later reading skills and dissimilar in the variability and range of skills. CBM tools can provide educators with information about the early reading skills of children with ASD to help address reading and language difficulties seen in this population. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

This study examined the prevalence of ADHD symptoms and anxiety as reported by parents and teachers for 180 preschool children (ages 4-5) and school-aged children (ages 6-7) with ASD using the Child Behavior Checklist-Parent and Teacher Report Forms (Achenbach and Rescorla, Manual for ASEBA school-age forms & profiles, Research Center for Children, Youth, and Families, University of Vermont, Burlington, VT, 2001). Parents reported elevated anxiety symptoms in 31% of preschool children and 50% of school-aged children, while teachers reported lower rates of 5 and 30%, respectively. Parents reported elevated ADHD symptoms in 22% of preschool children and 45% of school-aged children, while teachers reported elevations in 20 and 24%, respectively. There was low concordance between parents and teachers, with teachers reporting fewer problems overall. Specific behaviors endorsed by parents and teachers are also discussed.

Relatively limited research has been devoted to understanding the postsecondary experience from the students’ perspectives. In the current study, individual interviews were conducted with university students with autism spectrum disorder (n = 13) and students with Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (n = 18) to investigate likely factors impeding meaningful postsecondary experiences. Through an iterative coding process, nine themes were identified, and direct narratives exemplifying each are included. Overall, both diagnostic groups reported significant social, emotional, and academic challenges within the university setting, although there were distinctions. Findings have direct applications to higher education initiatives, such as the development of programs to increase faculty awareness and to target the efforts of university disability centers in meeting the needs of students with neurodevelopmental disorders.

It has been well documented that individuals with autism spectrum disorder or intellectual disabilities demonstrate comorbid behavior problems, or behaviors that are not specified by the criteria for the diagnosis. Co-occurring behavior problems can substantially interfere with the child's educational and social functioning, lead to poor long-term child outcomes, negatively impact family outcomes, and create additional challenges for treatment and intervention. However, what is less clear is how the impact of behavior problems evolves across crucial stages of development, with differential effects at different ages. A better understanding of the trajectory of co-occurring behavior problems is important for improving outcomes across domains, including social, academic, and mental health. This chapter begins with a brief overview of autism spectrum disorder and intellectual disability, including the expression of comorbidity in these populations, and provides a review of the literature pertaining to the developmental course of behavior problems and their collateral effects on the school and family environment. We conclude with a discussion of future directions for research on behavior problems and intervention efforts for individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities.

© 2017, Routledge. All rights reserved. Individual differences in emotion regulation are central to social, academic, occupational, and psychological development, and emotion dysregulation (ED) in childhood is a risk factor for numerous developmental outcomes. The present study aimed to (a) describe the developmental trajectory of ED across early childhood (3–6 years) and (b) examine its sensitivity to youth serotonin transporter genotype, positive and negative parenting behaviors, and their interaction. Participants were 99 families in the Collaborative Family Study, a longitudinal study of children with or without developmental delays. Child ED and early parenting were coded from parent–child interactions. To examine serotonin transporter genotype as a moderator between parenting and child emotion dysregulation (ED), children with the homozygous short (SS) genotype were compared to children with the homozygous long (LL) or heterozygous (SL) genotype. We used latent growth curve modeling (LGCM) to model yearly change in ED from child age 3 to 6 years. LGCM revealed that ED decreased overall across early childhood. In addition, we observed separate Genotype × Positive and Genotype × Negative parenting behavior interactions in predictions of ED growth curves. Children with the SL/LL genotype had ED trajectories that were minimally related to positive and negative parenting behavior, whereas ED decreased more precipitously among children with the SS genotype when exposed to low negative parenting or high positive parenting. These findings provide evidence for Gene × Environment interactions (G×Es) in the development of ED in a manner that is conceptually consistent with vantage sensitivity, and they improve inferences afforded by prospective designs.

In this conceptual article, we integrate existing literature on early school transitions, ecological systems theory, and student-teacher relationships to propose a framework for investigating the transition to school for children with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). A review of the literature suggests that the quality of early student-teacher relationships may play an important role in this process for young children with ASD. Factors important in predicting student-teacher relationship quality, and ultimately, early school outcomes, are derived from the existing literature, which is heavily focused on the experiences of typically developing children. Hypothesized direct effects of child characteristics, teacher factors, classroom/school characteristics, and parent-school connectedness on student-teacher relationship quality are set forth. Potential moderators of the relation between student-teacher relationship quality and child outcomes are proposed, including child cognitive functioning, child relatio...

The associations between student–teacher relationship (STR) quality and externalizing behavior problems in school were examined among 166 children with ASD (82% boys, ages 4–7 years) across three assessments over a 1.5-year period; IQs in the sample range from 50 to 139 (M = 88.7). Unlike other non-ASD populations, the association between STR quality and externalizing problems was not transactional; instead, cross-lagged panel analyses supported a child-driven pathway whereby early teacher-reported behavior problems led to poorer relationship quality over time. Higher externalizing problems predicted increased student–teacher conflict from fall to spring of the same school year and predicted increased student–teacher conflict and decreased student–teacher closeness in the subsequent school year. Child behavior problems appear to drive changes in children's relationships with teachers that follow them across multiple teachers and classroom contexts. The association between early student–teacher relationship quality and subsequent externalizing problems was not moderated by cognitive ability or intellectual disability status. Findings suggest that interventions targeting early disruptive behavior problems may indirectly improve children's school relationships over time.

We investigated the association between exposure to environmental risks in early childhood and the prevalence and persistence of conduct difficulties (CD) in children with intellectual disability (ID) who did not have autistic spectrum disorder (ASD), children with ASD and typically developing (TD) children. Results indicated that: (1) exposure to risk was associated with elevated prevalence of CD at age three and, for TD children and children with ID, increased risk of CD persisting to ages five and seven; (2) at all levels of risk, children with ASD were more likely to show persistent CD than other children; (3) children with ID were no more likely to show persistent CD than TD children at low levels of exposure to environmental risk.

Parenting research is frequently conducted without a thorough examination of socio-economic characteristics. In this study, longitudinal observations of positive parenting were conducted across six time points. Participants were 219 mothers of children with and without developmental delays. Mothers’ positive parenting increased during early and middle childhood in children with and without developmental delays. Mothers who reported more education had significantly higher levels of positive parenting when their children were 3 years old. Mothers who reported more family income grew at a significantly faster rate in positive parenting. There was preliminary support that mothers with more income were more likely to be members of a class that started off and remained at a higher level of positive parenting over time. Implications are discussed.

This article provides direction for educational decision making specifically for individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), who have the cognitive and adaptive capabilities required to pursue postsecondary college education. The purpose is to draw attention to the available postsecondary pathways, 2- and 4-year college options, by addressing important issues for college-bound young adults with ASD. These include living supports, practical skills, social supports, and educational accommodations. Furthermore, the role of educational and faculty supports is emphasized, as this is an area that has received little research attention.

This study examined relations among behavior problems, social skills, and student–teacher relationships within a sample of children (mean age 8) with autism spectrum disorders or ASD (n = 36) and comparison samples of children with typical development (n = 91) or with intellectual disability (n = 38.) Student–teacher relationships (STRs) for children with ASD appeared to be qualitatively different from those of similarly aged children with ID or typical development. The STRs for children with ASD were considerably poorer, with less closeness and more conflict, than in the two comparison groups. Within the group with ASD, teacher-reported child externalizing behavior and social skills accounted for significant variance in the total score on the Student Teacher Relationship Scale. Conflict was predicted only by externalizing behavior, whereas closeness was predicted by social skills; level of autistic mannerisms negatively related to the teacher's perception of closeness. Findings address the implications for transition to early schooling for children with ASD.

Using a sample of 219 families of children with ( n = 94) and without ( n = 125) developmental disabilities, this study examined the longitudinal perspectives of maternal stress in early (ages 3–5) and middle childhood (ages 6–13) and its relationship to mothers’ and children's characteristics. Multivariate latent curve models indicated that maternal stress remained high and stable with minimal individual variation in early childhood, but declined with significant individual variation in middle childhood. Maternal stress at the beginning of middle childhood was associated with earlier maternal stress, as well as children's behavioral problems and social skills. The trajectory of maternal stress across middle childhood was related to children's behavioral problems. Implications for interventions are discussed.

This paper reports on a college community's views of the diagnostic characteristics and causes associated with autism spectrum disorders. An anonymous on-line survey of autism knowledge was distributed via campus server university-wide to all undergraduates, graduate students, faculty, and staff. Of the 1,057 surveys completed, 76 % of respondents had more correct answers than neutral and incorrect ones. Respondents who reported that they or someone in their immediate family had autism had significantly more correct responses than other respondents. Demographic variables of respondent sex, age, education, and role at the university independently accounted for significant, though modest, variance in autism knowledge. More accurate and widespread dissemination of information about autism may facilitate a smoother transition for college students who are on the spectrum.

The study examines the epidemiology of oppositional defiant disorder (ODD) for children with intellectual disabilities (ID; n = 49), children with borderline intellectual functioning (BIF; n = 20), and typically developing children (TD; n = 115). The Diagnostic Interview Schedule for Children was administered to mothers at child ages 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 years. Children with ID had consistently higher rates of ODD than TD children, whereas children with BIF had intermediate prevalence rates. The comorbidity of ODD with other disorders, especially attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, was elevated for children with ID. There were no group differences in gender, age of onset, or stability of ODD and all of the groups endorsed symptoms of ODD with the same relative frequency. Accordingly, the study findings generally support the assertion that ODD is the same disorder for children with and without ID.

The self-perceived physical health of mothers raising children with developmental delay (DD; N = 116) or typical development (TD; N = 129) was examined across child ages 3–9 years, revealing three main findings. First, mothers of children with DD experienced poorer self-rated physical health than mothers of children with TD at each age. Latent growth curve analyses indicated that mothers in the DD group experienced poorer health from age 3 but that the two groups showed similar growth across ages 3–9 years. Second, cross-lagged panel analyses supported a child-driven pathway in early childhood (ages 3–5) by which early mother-reported child behavior problems predicted poorer maternal health over time, while the reversed, health-driven path was not supported. Third, this cross-lagged path was significantly stronger in the DD group, indicating that behavior problems more strongly impact mothers’ health when children have developmental delay than when children have typical development. The health disparity between mothers of children with DD vs. TD stabilized by child age 5 and persisted across early and middle childhood. Early interventions ought to focus on mothers’ well-being, both psychological and physical, in addition to child functioning.

This study examined mothers' perceptions of the positive impact of having a child with an intellectual disability. Trajectories of positive impact from 7 time points were developed using latent growth modeling and 2 predictors: culture (Anglo, Latino) and child disability status (intellectual disability, typical development). Data were from 219 mothers of children from age 3 to 9 years. Growth trajectories reflected a general decline in positive impact on Anglo mothers. On average, at age 3, Anglo mothers reported significantly lower initial values on positive impact when their children had an intellectual disability, but Latino mothers did not. Across all time points, Latino mothers had higher scores on the positive impact, regardless of whether they had a child with an intellectual disability or a typically developing child.

Children with intellectual and developmental disabilities are at heightened risk for mental disorders. Using current diagnostic criteria, disruptive behavior disorders, specifically Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), appear to be the most prevalent co-occurring disorders. However, the validity of ADHD as a diagnosis for children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities remains unclear. The present study examined the clinical presentation of ADHD (prevalence, sex differences, and comorbidity) among adolescents with and without intellectual disability (ID) as well as investigated the validity of ADHD for adolescents with ID by examining similarities in terms of symptom presentation, developmental course, and associated functional impairment. The sample included 142 adolescents and their families, about a third of whom were classified in the ID group and the remaining were in the typically developing (TD) group. Findings indicated that adolescents with ID continue to be at elevated risk for ADHD (risk ratio: 3.38:1) compared to their typically developing peers. Additionally, the presentation of ADHD appeared similar among adolescents with and without ID, supporting the validity of an ADHD diagnosis for this population of adolescents. Implications for public policy and intervention are discussed.