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Nationalistic identities often play an influential role in citizens' voting behavior and political engagement. Nationalistic ideologies tend to have firm categories and rules for what belongs to and represents the national culture. In a sample of 332 UK citizens, we tested whether strict categorization of stimuli and rules in objective cognitive tasks would be evident in strongly nationalistic individuals. Using voting behavior and attitudes from the United Kingdom's 2016 EU referendum, we found that a flexible representation of national identity and culture was linked to cognitive flexibility in the ideologically neutral Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and Remote Associates Test, and to self-reported flexibility under uncertainty. Path analysis revealed that subjective and objective cognitive inflexibility predicted heightened authoritarianism, nationalism, conservatism, and system justification, and these in turn were predictive of support for Brexit and opposition to immigration, the European Union, and free movement of labor. This model accounted for 47.6% of the variance in support for Brexit. Path analysis models were also predictive of participants' sense of personal attachment to the United Kingdom, signifying that individual differences in cognitive flexibility may contribute toward ideological thinking styles that shape both nationalistic attitudes and personal sense of nationalistic identity. These findings further suggest that emotionally neutral "cold" cognitive information processing-and not just "hot" emotional cognition-may play a key role in ideological behavior and identity., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Abstract Background The Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS) is a 12-item self-report questionnaire designed to assess cognitive flexibility. Despite its widespread use, its psychometric properties have yet to be evaluated in the Italian context. Furthermore, while cognitive flexibility has emerged as a central correlate in Feeding and Eating Disorders, only a limited number of studies have investigated its association with Orthorexia Nervosa (ON), a clinical condition characterized by a pathological fixation with healthy eating. The present study aimed to fill these two knowledge gaps. Methods A total of 803 participants (Mage = 33.89, SD = 9.44; 68.6% females) were enrolled in the investigation. The sample was randomly split into two subsamples: the first one for examining the psychometric properties of the CFS, and the second one for evaluating its association with ON symptoms. Participants completed self-report questionnaires assessing the constructs under investigation. Results Confirmatory factor analysis revealed a global dimension of cognitive flexibility, alongside a method factor accounting for covariance arising by reverse-worded items. The CFS, which was factorially invariant across genders, yielded a reliable total score (ω = 0.834) and provided evidence of convergent and criterion-related validity. Importantly, structural equation modelling showed that cognitive flexibility was negatively associated with emotional distress resulting from violations of orthorexic dietary rules (β = -0.279, p

It is believed that bilingualism contributes to the enhancement of executive functions in bilingual individuals as they need to constantly control the simultaneous activation of two or more languages in their brains. However, decades of research have led to contradictory conclusions regarding the existence of bilingual advantage. One of the promising approaches to resolving these contradictions is a more detailed examination of bilingual language experience. The aim of this study was twofold. First is to empirically test the language entropy method as a way of measuring variability in bilingual language use in different interaction contexts. Second is to examine the relationship between bilinguals’ language entropy and executive functions (cognitive flexibility, goal maintenance, conflict monitoring). The study involved 111 bilinguals (mean age = 20.5 (2.97); 75.7% female), who are speakers of Adyghe-Russian and Tatar-Russian languages. The battery of instruments included a questionnaire on demographic and language experience, containing questions to calculate language entropy in four contexts (home, university, work, free time), a Color-shape switching task to measure executive functions (domains of cognitive flexibility, goal updating, conflict monitoring), and Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test to assess nonverbal intelligence. The results demonstrated that language entropy of the bilinguals from both regions did not exceed a score of 0.66 in all the contexts which indicates the use of predominantly one language in everyday communications. However, in the “university” context, bilinguals speaking Tatar and Russian used languages in a more balanced way than bilinguals speaking Adyghe and Russian languages. The results suggest that the language entropy method can be highly effective for characterizing bilingual language experience. The results also showed that there was no relationship between language entropy of the bilinguals in this study and their executive functions (domains of cognitive flexibility, goal updating, conflict monitoring). This is consistent with the predictions of the Adaptive Control Hypothesis.

Objective: Cognitive flexibility, identified as a transdiagnostic process in psychopathology, lacks specific Spanish-validated assessment tools. This study aims to examine the psychometric properties of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory in a Spanish sample (N = 300, mean age = 22.66, SD = 4.92), 76% women). Method: An exploratory structural equation model (ESEM) was used to test the inventory’s latent structure. Reliability was calculated, as well as construct validity evidence with measures of emotion regulation, attributional style, and depression. Results: The original bifactorial model of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (Alternatives and Control scales) was replicated and obtained good fit indices. One item was excluded due to problematic factor loadings, yielding a final version with 19 items. Evidence of validity and reliability was obtained. Conclusions: The Spanish version of the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory showed satisfactory psychometric properties, making it a suitable measure for the assessment of cognitive flexibility in the Spanish population.

Abstract Background Vaccine hesitancy (the reluctance or refusal to vaccinate) poses a significant threat to public health worldwide, with declining vaccination coverage resulting in the resurgence of vaccine-preventable diseases (e.g., measles) in recent years. Despite efforts to combat vaccine hesitancy through information-based campaigns and other interventions, vaccine-hesitant attitudes persist. Given that such interventions likely expose individuals to information that conflicts with their own viewpoints about vaccination, cognitive flexibility – the ability to adapt one’s thoughts, attitudes, beliefs, or behavior in response to changing information or environmental demands – may play a role in vaccine hesitancy. Methods The current study investigated the relationship between cognitive flexibility and attitudes towards vaccination in a sample of New Zealand residents (N = 601). Cognitive flexibility was measured using perseverative responses in the Wisconsin Card-Sorting Task, and vaccination attitudes were measured using an adapted version of the Multidimensional Vaccine Hesitancy Scale (MVHS). Linear regression was used with MVHS scores as the dependent variable and cognitive flexibility and sociodemographic variables (age, gender, ethnicity, education level, religion) as predictors. Results Cognitive flexibility predicted personal barriers to vaccination (e.g.,” vaccines go against my personal beliefs”), with participants with lower levels of cognitive flexibility reporting greater personal barriers. In contrast, there was no significant relationship between cognitive flexibility and external barriers to vaccination (e.g., “vaccines cost too much”). Additionally, religious participants reported overall higher levels of vaccine hesitancy than non-religious participants. Conclusions These findings join others demonstrating that individual differences in cognitive style are associated with attitudes towards vaccination, and tentatively suggest that interventions aiming to reduce vaccine hesitancy may be more effective if combined with techniques to increase cognitive flexibility. To be sure, future work is needed to test the causal relationship between cognitive flexibility and attitudes towards vaccination.

The aim of this study is to determine the mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between positive orientation towards school and students' academic well-being. Correlational and structural equation model research methodologies were implemented. The statistical population comprises 360 students from the first secondary school in Minoudasht city during the academic year 2022-2023. Utilizing Cochran’s formula, 186 students were chosen as the research sample. Three questionnaires were employed to collect data: positive orientation towards school (POTS), academic well-being (AWBQ) and cognitive flexibility (CFI) questionnaires. Data analysis has been done with the help of SmartPLS3 software and structural equation modeling. The results showed that a positive attitude toward school has a direct and beneficial impact on academic well-being and cognitive flexibility. Additionally, cognitive flexibility has a positive and direct effect on academic well-being. Moreover, the indirect impact of a positive attitude toward school on academic well-being, which is mediated by cognitive flexibility, is both positive and significant. The findings indicate that the more students have a positive orientation towards school and have higher cognitive flexibility, the higher their academic well-being increases.

Abstract Background Generalized anxiety (GA) is showing a high prevalence among adolescents nowadays; investigations on influencing factors and potential mechanisms are important to inform intervention development. The present two-wave study investigated the ways in which family functioning predicted GA six months later among adolescents, by considering the mediating role of self-identity and cognitive flexibility. Methods Adolescents were recruited from 27 randomly selected classes in two secondary schools in Chongqing and Fujian Province, China. Survey questionnaires assessing family functioning, self-identity, cognitive flexibility and GA were obtained from 1223 adolescents (M age = 13.14, SD = 1.35) at two time points of the 6-month interval. Results The association between family functioning (T1) and GA (T2) was significant (r= -0.152, p

ObjectiveThis study examines the mediating role of cognitive flexibility in the relationship between home-school co-education (H-SCE) and depressive symptom among vocational college students in urban and rural areas of China.MethodsUtilizing the Theory of Overlapping Spheres of Influence, this research explores how H-SCE influences depressive symptom, considering cognitive flexibility as a key mediating factor. The study utilized established scales, including the Inventory of Parent and Peer Attachment (IPPA) for parent-child relationships, the Student-Teacher Relationship Scale (STRS), the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI), and the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D10).ResultsA total of 1090 valid questionnaires were analyzed, revealing a significant negative correlation between H-SCE and depressive symptom. Cognitive flexibility was found to partially mediate this relationship, suggesting that enhanced cognitive adaptability, fostered through effective H-SCE, can reduce depressive symptom by helping students better cope with stressors.ConclusionThese findings underscore the importance of fostering strong collaboration between families and schools to enhance cognitive resilience and mitigate psychological challenges faced by vocational students, providing a foundation for targeted interventions to promote mental well-being.

In rodents and nonhuman primates, sex hormones are powerful modulators of dopamine (DA) neurotransmission. Yet less is known about hormonal regulation of the DA system in the human brain. Using positron emission tomography (PET), we address this gap by comparing hormonal contraceptive users and nonusers across multiple aspects of DA function: DA synthesis capacity via the PET radioligand 6-[18F]fluoro-m-tyrosine ([18F]FMT), baseline D2/3 receptor binding potential using [11C]raclopride, and DA release using methylphenidate-paired [11C]raclopride. Participants consisted of 36 healthy women (n = 15 hormonal contraceptive users; n = 21 naturally cycling/non users of hormonal contraception), and men (n = 20) as a comparison group. A behavioral index of cognitive flexibility was assessed prior to PET imaging. Hormonal contraceptive users exhibited greater DA synthesis capacity than NC participants, particularly in dorsal caudate, and greater cognitive flexibility. Furthermore, across individuals, the magnitude of striatal DA synthesis capacity was associated with cognitive flexibility. No group differences were observed in D2/3 receptor binding or DA release. Analyses by sex alone may obscure underlying differences in DA synthesis tied to women's hormone status. Hormonal contraception (in the form of pill, shot, implant, ring, or intrauterine device) is used by ~400 million women worldwide, yet few studies have examined whether chronic hormonal manipulations impact basic properties of the DA system. Findings from this study begin to address this critical gap in women's health.

Jealousy is a social emotion that manifests as behavioral reactions from an individual toward a threat to a valuable relationship. Monogamous species exhibit jealousy-type behaviors as an adaptive response to preserve the relationship. Jealousy is also a complex, negatively-valenced emotion which may include fear of loss, anxiety, suspiciousness, and anger. Negative emotion may impair cognitive processes such as cognitive flexibility, an ability important for coping with new situations. However, little is known about how complex social emotions influence cognitive flexibility. To understand the interaction between jealousy and cognitive flexibility, we examined the neural, physiological, and behavioral factors involved in jealousy and cognitive flexibility in female titi monkeys. We presented subjects with a jealousy provoking scenario, followed by a reversal learning task and a PET scan with a glucose-analog radiotracer. We found that female titi monkeys reacted to a jealousy provoking scenario with increased locomotor behavior and higher glucose uptake in the cerebellum; however, hormone measures and were not affected. As only two females demonstrated cognitive flexibility, the effects of jealousy were difficult to interpret. Locomotion behavior was also negatively correlated with glucose uptake in brain areas linked with motivation, sociality, and cognitive flexibility. Surprisingly, glucose uptake in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) was significantly decreased during jealousy scenarios, while uptake in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) was decreased during reversal tasks. Our findings suggest that the presence of an intruder produces less visible behavioral reactions in female titis than in males, while still reducing activity in the OFC.

Abstract Background This study explores the intricate web of symptoms experienced by academically gifted high school students, focusing on procrastination, rumination, perfectionism, and cognitive flexibility. The well-being of these gifted adolescents remains a pivotal concern, and understanding the dynamics of these symptoms is vital. Methods A diverse sample of 207 academically gifted high school students from Mashhad, Iran, participated in this study. Using convenience sampling, participants from grades 10, 11, and 12 were included, with detailed assessments conducted through questionnaires measuring the mentioned symptoms. Results Our network analysis uncovers compelling insights into the interplay of these symptoms: Procrastination, though moderately central, exerts significant influence within the network, underscoring its relevance. Cognitive flexibility, while centrally positioned, curiously exhibits a negative influence, potentially serving as a protective factor. Negative perfectionism emerges as the keystone symptom, with both high centrality and a positive influence. Rumination displays substantial centrality and a positive influence, indicating its role in symptom exacerbation. Positive perfectionism, moderately central, lacks direct influence on other symptoms. Conclusion This network analysis provides a nuanced understanding of the relationships among procrastination, rumination, perfectionism, and cognitive flexibility in academically gifted adolescents. Negative perfectionism and cognitive flexibility emerge as critical factors deserving attention in interventions aimed at enhancing the well-being of this unique group. Further research should explore causal relationships to refine targeted interventions.

The aim of this research was to investigate the efficacy of cognitive rehabilitation in enhancing academic achievement, cognitive flexibility, and selective attention in students with specific learning disabilities. This applied study employed a semi-experimental design with pretest-posttest, a quantitative research method, and an experimental and control group. The population included all elementary school pupils who were referred to learning disability centers in Zanjan during the academic year 2021-2022. A total of 40 participants (22 boys and 18 girls) were randomly assigned to the experimental and control groups (each group, 20 participants). The selection was conducted through convenience sampling. The control group was placed on a waiting list, while the experimental group received 12 sessions of cognitive rehabilitation interventions. The Stroop and Wisconsin Card Sorting Tests were employed to capture data, which were subsequently analyzed using SPSS24 and repeated measures analysis. The findings showed that after cognitive rehabilitation, the level of selective attention, cognitive flexibility, and academic achievement of the participants increased significantly. Selective attention, cognitive flexibility, and academic achievement were significantly different between the experimental and control groups in the pretest, posttest, and follow-up (P

Background: The birth and presence of a child with intellectual disability in families will lead to different types of emotional and cognitive reactions. Therefore, some of the mother’s of such children do not have flexible thinking and as a result the ability of operation in unpalatable condition becomes more difficult and they can not manage there emotion in such conditions easily. Also, these mothers suffer more tensions due to the lack of high psychological capital. Aims: The aim of this research was to develop a structural model of happiness of mothers with children with intellectual disabilities based on psychological capital with the mediation of cognitive flexibility Methods: The method of the present study was applied in terms of purpose and in terms of descriptive nature, and is based on structural equation modeling method. The statistical population of this research included mothers with children with intellectual disabilities who have a file in Tehran's special education organization (Tehran's exceptional schools, academic year 1401-1400).. bye considering the possiblity of drop off, of samples, the sample size in the present study was also considered to be 300 people from Tehran. The sampling method used is also called availablity. Oxford happiness questionnaire (Argyle, 2005), psychological resource questionnaire (Luthans Et all, 2007), and cognitive flexibility questionnaire (Dennis & Vander Wal, 2010) were used to collect data. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation tests using SPSS version 25 software and structural equation modeling using Amos version 8.8 software. Results: results showed that happiness based on psychological resources of mothers who have children with intellectual issues (through flexibility) has indirect effect (P= 0/000). About 77% of the mentioned relationship is explained by the effect of psychological resources on happiness through flexibility (P= 0/020). Conclusion: It seems that considering that mothers with children with intellectual disabilities are less flexible in dealing with issues and problems and can hardly accept issues and problems, therefore, it is better to conduct more extensive research with more samples in These families should be done.

Abstract Background Mild Cognitive Impairment (MCI) is a preclinical condition between healthy and pathological aging, which is characterized by impairments in executive functions (EFs), including cognitive flexibility. According to Diamond’s model, cognitive flexibility is a core executive function, along with working memory and inhibition, but it requires the development of these last EFs to reach its full potential. In this model, planning and fluid intelligence are considered higher-level EFs. Given their central role in enabling individuals to adapt their daily life behavior efficiently, the goal is to gain valuable insight into the functionality of cognitive flexibility in a preclinical form of cognitive decline. This study aims to investigate the role of cognitive flexibility and its components, set-shifting and switching, in MCI. The hypotheses are as follows: (I) healthy participants are expected to perform better than those with MCI on cognitive flexibility and higher-level EFs tasks, taking into account the mediating role of global cognitive functioning; (II) cognitive flexibility can predict performance on higher-level EFs (i.e., planning and fluid intelligence) tasks differently in healthy individuals and those diagnosed with MCI. Methods Ninety participants were selected and divided into a healthy control group (N = 45; mean age 64.1 ± 6.80; 66.6% female) and an MCI group (N = 45; mean age 65.2 ± 8.14; 40% female). Cognitive flexibility, fluid intelligence, planning, and global cognitive functioning of all participants were assessed using standardized tasks. Results Results indicated that individuals with MCI showed greater impairment in global cognitive functioning and EFs performance. Furthermore, the study confirms the predictive role of cognitive flexibility for higher EFs in individuals with MCI and only partially in healthy older adults.

IntroductionThe development of reading and complex executive functions is fundamental for achieving social, academic, and professional success. So far, there is no single neuropsychological instrument that comprehensively assesses the domains of inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and reading comprehension. To assess executive functions related to reading, the “Assessment of Reading and Executive Functions” (AREF) was developed. In this study, we show initial evidence of validity and reliability for four subtests - Graphophonological-Semantic Flexibility, Inhibitory Control, Flexibility, and Working Memory.MethodsA total of 93 students from 4th to 9th grade, aged 8-14, in public (n = 61) and private (n = 32) schools were evaluated. Tasks from the AREF instrument, as well as measures of reading comprehension, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and intelligence, were administered. Correlations between AREF scores and the other measures were performed to assess external construct validity. Performance differences between school groups on AREF subtests were analyzed using ANOVA, t-test, and Mann-Whitney tests, and the internal consistency of the instrument’s tasks was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha coefficient.ResultsThe scores of the AREF subtests demonstrated significant positive correlations with reading measures (ranging from 0.339 to 0.367) and executive functions (ranging from 0.209 to 0.396). Significant differences were found in the performance of some AREF tasks when comparing individuals from public and private schools, as well as between 4th and 5th graders compared to students in higher grades. The internal consistency of the tasks was low for Graphophonological-Semantic Flexibility (Cronbach’s α = 0.566), moderate for Inhibitory Control and Flexibility (Cronbach’s α = 0.768), and high for Working Memory (Cronbach’s α = 0.881).DiscussionThe results provide initial evidence of construct validity and reliability for the AREF subtests. It is expected that this new neuropsychological test will contribute to the assessment of reading skills and executive functions, assisting in guiding clinical and educational interventions for individuals with and without neurodevelopmental disorders.

ObjectiveThis study was to investigate the developmental characteristics of executive function (EF) in obese adolescents and the time-course effects of a 14-week exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training on EF in this population.MethodsThe experimental group of 28 obese junior high school students participated in the exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training, while the control group of 24 healthy weight junior high school students engaged in the regular recess exercise. EF, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, was assessed 1 week prior to the exercise intervention and at 12 and 14 weeks post-intervention. Changes in EF sub-functions in both groups at different time points during the exercise intervention were analyzed.ResultsThe findings revealed that obese junior high school students exhibited lower levels of inhibition (p = 0.003, Cohen’s d = 0.848) and cognitive flexibility (p = 0.013, Cohen’s d = 0.706) compared to their healthy weight peers. The exercise intervention combining aerobic exercise and resistance training led to significant improvements in EF among obese junior high school students, with inhibition (p

The purpose of this study is to examine whether there are differences in critical thinking dispositions and cognitive flexibility among university students based on gender, grade level, and faculty. Additionally, the study will investigate the relationship between these two concepts and their predictive power. The study was conducted using a relational survey model and included 366 university students selected through maximum diversity sampling. The study involved university students from various faculties and grade levels. Data was collected through a personal information form, cognitive flexibility inventory, and critical thinking disposition scale. The data was analyzed using the SPSS 25 program. The results indicate that university students exhibit relatively high levels of cognitive flexibility and critical thinking tendencies. Above the medium level, there was a significant positive relationship between cognitive flexibility and critical thinking tendency. Cognitive flexibility was found to be a significant predictor of critical thinking dispositions, positively and significantly predicting critical thinking disposition and explaining 40% of it. Individuals with critical thinking tendencies exhibit cognitive flexibility, which is also associated with thinking critically. Therefore, cognitive flexibility and critical thinking are interrelated characteristics.

Teachers play a crucial role in guiding learners through life's challenges. They face educational and socio-economic shifts while striving to teach for a better future. Our study focuses on equipping future teachers, called pre-service teachers, with resilience-building resources during their teacher training program. A potential antecedent to resilience, which facilitates cognitive strategies and attentional processes, is cognitive flexibility. We first tested whether cognitive flexibility predicts resilience. Next, relying on the tenets of positive psychology, which studies resilience, we developed and tested the effectiveness of character strengths intervention in enhancing pre-service teachers' resilience and cognitive flexibility. An individual's belief in their ability to change personal resources could influence how an intervention manifests. Hence, we studied how mindset impacts the intervention's effect on cognitive flexibility and, thus, resilience. We adopted a multi-method approach, guided by Polk's theory of resilience, to test out objectives.Using a cross-sectional design, study one (n = 273) found that cognitive flexibility significantly predicted resilience. Study two (N = 193; nexp = 133, ncont = 60) was a multi-site field experiment. We found that intervention significantly enhanced resilience (experimental group M = 29.62, control group M = 28.33) and cognitive flexibility (experimental group M = 54.42, control group M = 52.01). Further, a growth mindset, was found to moderate the indirect effect of character strengths intervention on resilience via cognitive flexibility. The study contributes to theoretical and practical advancements in resilience. Taken together, the findings highlight the cognitive-affective-behavioural makeup of resilience and, importantly, the role of cognitive flexibility. The intervention can be seamlessly integrated into teacher training curricula for a resilient future.

This study analyzed differences in level of main executive function (EF) components (such as inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility) among Russian and Japanese preschoolers. The study involved 102 children of 5–6.9 years old: 51 child from Russia and 51 child from Japan. Out of 102 children 48 were boys and 54 girls. It was found that the cognitive flexibility level in Russian children is higher and inhibition level is lower than in Japanese children. The results of the boys’ EF comparison showed that boys from Russia have lower cognitive and physical inhibition levels than boys from Japan. Also it was shown that cognitive flexibility in Russian girls is significantly higher and cognitive inhibition is lower than in Japanese girls. The results obtained are discussed from the point of view of possible cultural differences in the two countries studied, which are manifested in the expectations of adults from children.

IntroductionThis study explores the transformative potential of digital, theory-driven, and Bayesian paradigms in neuropsychology by combining digital technologies, a commitment to evaluating theoretical frameworks, and Bayesian statistics. The study also examines theories of executive function and cognitive flexibility in a large sample of neurotypical individuals (N = 489).MethodsWe developed an internet-based Wisconsin Card-Sorting Task (iWCST) optimized for online assessment of perseveration errors (PE). Predictions of the percentage of PE, PE (%), in non-repetitive versus repetitive situations were derived from the established supervisory attention system (SAS) theory, non-repetitive PE (%) repetitive PE (%).ResultsBayesian t-tests revealed the presence of a robust error suppression effect (ESE) indicating that PE are less likely in repetitive situations than in non-repetitive situations, contradicting SAS theory with posterior model probability p 0.999. We conclude that repetitive situations support cognitive set switching in the iWCST by facilitating the retrieval of goal-directed, instrumental memory that associates stimulus features, actions, and outcomes, thereby generating the ESE in neurotypical individuals. We also report exploratory data analyses, including a Bayesian network analysis of relationships between iWCST measures.DiscussionOverall, this study serves as a paradigmatic model for combining digital technologies, theory-driven research, and Bayesian statistics in neuropsychology. It also provides insight into how this integrative, innovative approach can advance the understanding of executive function and cognitive flexibility and inform future research and clinical applications.

Objective: Critical thinking is considered a vital skill for life, especially for learning among students. The current research aims to determine a causal model of the relationship between parent-child interaction and the disposition towards critical thinking, with cognitive flexibility playing an intermediary role.Method: The design of this research was descriptive-correlational, utilizing structural equation modeling. The study population included male and female middle school students from Lahijan city during the 2023-2024 academic year. A sample of 200 students was selected through convenience sampling. For data collection in this research, the Parent-Child Relationship Scale (PCRS), The California Critical Thinking Disposition Inventory (CCTDI), and the Cognitive Flexibility Inventory (CFI) were used. The data were then analyzed using Pearson’s correlation test and structural equation modeling, with the help of SPSS 26 and LISREL 10.2 software.Results: The findings of the research indicated that the proposed model has a good fit. Additionally, parent-child interaction and cognitive flexibility have a direct effect on the disposition towards critical thinking (P > 0.05). Parent-child interaction has a significant and positive indirect effect on the disposition towards critical thinking through cognitive flexibility (P > 0.05).Conclusion: Therefore, it can be concluded that parent-child interaction and cognitive flexibility can predict critical thinking skills in students. School authorities and parents should pay special attention to these variables.

Introduction: MS is an autoimmune and destructive disease of the central nervous system with different disease progressions that lead to physical and cognitive disabilities. Aim: The purpose of this research was to investigate the effect of exercise in interactive levels, cognitive rehabilitation, and selected sports exercises on the cognitive functions in patients with MS. Method: The present study was a semi-experimental project with a pre-post test design. The statistical population included all women with MS in Tehran in 2021. The sample included 30 women with MS aged 25-45 years who were randomly assigned to three groups for cognitive rehabilitation, selected sports, and interactive activities. Then, for 8 weeks and every week, 3 sessions of 90-minute, people in each group did the specific exercises of their group. The neuropsychological assessment tests of Kontab (1980) and the degree of disability progression questionnaire (1995) were used for data collection. Data analysis was performed using ANOVA with repeated measures, Bonferroni post hoc test, and dependent t in SPSS-21. Results: The results showed that training on interactive levels led to greater improvements in the cognitive indices of reaction time and selective attention than cognitive rehabilitation and sports training (P0.05). Conclusion: Overall, the results showed that interactive exercises have the greatest impact on improving cognitive function in people with MS. Thus, it seems that the use of this type of exercise leads to the induction of cognitive load, so it is recommended to use this type of exercise in the rehabilitation of people with MS.

Bandar Alsaif,1,&ast; Sehar-un Nisa Hassan,1,&ast; Mohamed Ali Alzain,1 Ali A Almishaal,2 Aqeela Zahra3 1Department of Public Health, College of Public Health and Health Informatics, University of Ha’il, Ha’il, Saudi Arabia; 2Department of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, College of Applied Medical Sciences, University of Ha’il, Ha’il, Saudi Arabia; 3School of Medicine, University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom&ast;These authors contributed equally to this workCorrespondence: Sehar-un Nisa Hassan, Department of Public Health, College of Public Health and Health Informatics, University of Ha’il, Ha’il, Saudi Arabia, Email s.nisa@uoh.edu.saBackground: Cognitive flexibility (CF) in the psychological literature has been described as an individual’s ability to produce several solutions and retain control in novel situations. Recently, the COVID-19 pandemic appeared to be an ideal scenario that demanded the application of adaptive thinking by students to deal with several challenges of the pandemic.Aim: This study aimed to assess the role of CF in reducing academic stress among university students due to the sudden and strict implementation of online education during the COVID-19 pandemic.Methods: This study employed a cross-sectional survey design and data collection was completed during the 2020– 2021 academic year. The study sample comprised 328 university students from Saudi Arabia. The online survey method was used, and study tools comprises of reliable and valid psychological measures to assess CF, academic stress, the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic, and emotional symptoms. IBMSPSS25 was used for statistical analysis of data. Multiple regression analysis was applied to determine the role of CF in reducing academic stress after controlling for other factors such as gender, age, academic year, negative impact of COVID-19 on daily life, and unpleasant emotional experiences.Results: CF was significantly decreased the risk of experiencing academic stress (b = ‒0.196, t = ‒3.54; p < 0.001; 95% CI = ‒3.53 to ‒0.11) after controlling for the negative impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on daily life (b = 0.119, t = 2.09; p < 0.05; 95% CI = 0.02– 0.63) and emotional repercussions (b = 0.109, t = 1.91; p < 0.05; 95% CI = ‒0.01– 0.15).Conclusion: The current findings suggest that CF could be fostered among university students as a useful mental tool to cope with academic stress during less-structured educational and social circumstances that may impact their daily lives and emotional wellness.Plain Language Summary: Cognitive Flexibility (CF), also known as the capacity for adaptive thinking, has been recognized as an important mental coping tool. The prolonged implementation of full-time online studies during the COVID-19 pandemic has been a source of academic stress among university students. This study examined the positive impact of cognitive flexibility on academic stress by collecting data from university students who underwent full-time online studies during the COVID-19 pandemic in Saudi Arabia. The study findings validated the protective role of CF, and recommended devising appropriate educational strategies that could foster adaptive thinking and enable students to cope with study-related stressors during uncertain times.Keywords: academic stress, adaptive thinking, cognitive flexibility, COVID-19, digital studies, online education, Saudi Arabia

Academic performance, dropout rates, and low graduation rates constitute an area of concern in Latin American universities that has been the topic of various studies. Certain researchers suggest that some differences in academic performance could arise from interindividual variations in self-regulation mechanisms such as executive functions. Therefore, this study aimed to contribute to the investigation of the relationships between university performance and executive functions, specifically working memory, inhibition, and shifting. The study involved 196 students who completed the Reading Span Task, the Five Digits Test, and the Finger Task. Working memory, inhibition, and shifting exhibited a weak significant relationship with performance. Furthermore, additionally to age, socioeconomic status, and student work hours, inhibition and shifting accounted for 38% of the variance in academic performance. The findings provide a contribution to the understanding of this topic and to the discussion of previous contradictory findings.

Objectives: Cognitive flexibility and psychological distress, such as depression and anxiety, have been implicated in the aetiology of Anorexia Nervosa (AN). Despite the known associations between eating disorder (ED) symptoms, depression, anxiety, and cognitive flexibility, the specific pathways that connect these constructs are unclear. We therefore used network analysis to examine the relationship between these symptoms in an AN sample. Methods: One hundred and ninety‐three treatment‐seeking individuals diagnosed with AN (95.6% female, M = 26.89 [SD = 9.45] years old) completed self‐report measures assessing depression, anxiety, cognitive flexibility, and ED symptoms. To determine each symptom's influence in the network, we calculated the expected influence. Results: The two relationships with the greatest edges were those between (1) weight/shape concerns and eating/dietary restraint and (2) weight/shape concerns and psychological distress (a measure that combined depression and anxiety). Cognitive flexibility was not connected to weight/shape concerns but had negative partial associations with eating concerns/dietary restraint and psychological distress. There was also a slight, non‐zero connection between eating concerns/dietary restraint and psychological distress. Conclusions: The findings underscore the importance of weight/shape, eating/dietary concerns, and psychological distress in the AN network and suggest that addressing cognitive flexibility may be a useful target for eating concerns/dietary restraint and psychological distress. Future studies assessing the longitudinal course of psychopathology within the AN network structure may help in identifying whether specific symptoms function as risk factors or maintaining factors for this co‐occurrence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Psychological flexibility is a model of human performance and well-being. It essentially entails an approach to life circumstances that includes openness, awareness, and engagement. It has roots in behavior analysis, and it is linked to a philosophy of science called functional contextualism and to a specific therapy approach called Acceptance and Commitment Therapy. One of the earliest and most developed research areas in which this model and therapy have been applied is chronic pain. This review describes psychological flexibility and its facets in more detail, sets them in a context of relevant psychological models, and examines related assessment and treatment methods. It also examines evidence, current challenges, and future directions. It is proposed that psychological flexibility, or an expanded model very much like it, could provide a basis for integrating current research and treatment approaches in chronic pain and health generally. This, in turn, could produce improved treatments for people with chronic pain and other conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective. This study presents a Spanish version of the Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFS), a subjective and brief instrument to measure Cognitive Flexibility (CF), and analyzes its psychometric characteristics. Method. The items of the scale’s original version were adapted to Spanish. An interview containing the adapted version of the CFS, the Adult Executive Functioning Inventory (ADEXI), the Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI), and sociodemographic data, was administered to an intentional sample of 369 Argentine adults, aged between 18 and 60, through an online platform. Results. The CFS’s internal consistency was high (α = .813). A two-factor model, Strengths and Difficulties in CF, showed the best fit for the data. The CFS shows a negative correlation with the executive deficit and a positive correlations with empathy dimensions. Discussion. The Spanish-adapted version of the CFS shows satisfactory psychometric properties in the Argentine adult population.

Psychological constructs related to health outcomes and well-being, such as metacognitive beliefs, have been linked to executive functions in general, and cognitive flexibility more specifically. However, such effects have previously only been discussed on a theoretical level and behavioral flexibility has most often been measured through self-report, only approximating information processing capacities. Objectively measured executive functions may be a more potent predictor of health outcomes. We set out to test whether cognitive flexibility capacity was associated with sick leave in a medium sized company. We included 111 subjects of widely different occupations and assessed their executive functions using Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System test battery (D-KEFS). To assess cognitive flexibility capacity, we included Design Fluency (DF) and Verbal Fluency (VF) and computed these into an index of cognitive flexibility (DFVF). Detailed information on sick leave for the last 5 years was gathered from the company. Our results showed that there was a significant negative correlation between DFVF and sick leave [rs(109) = −0.23, p = 0.015] in the full group as well as in the group that had at least 1 day of sick leave [rs(72) = −0.25, p = 0.03]. The results withstood adjustment for sex, age, occupation, and several core executive functions as well as autistic and ADHD-traits. The results remained for separate analyses using DF or VF. Our main findings were conceptually replicated in a group of bipolar disorder patients. This study shows that objectively measured capacity of cognitive flexibility is associated with key health outcomes such as sick leave.

This perspective article contends that media multitasking has significant implications on cognitive control processes, particularly in how information is processed and utilized. Contrary to viewing media multitasking as inherently negative, the article argues that it contributes to the evolving nature of cognitive processing, without necessarily improving or degrading it. The discussion draws on theoretical frameworks from contemporary cognitive neuroscience to contextualize these arguments. The article provides a nuanced perspective on media multitasking, acknowledging its enduring presence and exploring its influence on cognitive processes, while also proposing strategies for educators to navigate its implications in educational settings.

Disorders such as Trichotillomania (TTM) and skin-picking disorder (SPD) are associated with reduced flexibility and increased internally focused attention. While the basal ganglia have been hypothesized to play a key role, the mechanisms underlying learning and flexible accommodation of new information is unclear. Using a Bayesian Learning Model, we evaluated the neural basis of learning and accommodation in individuals with TTM and/or SPD. Participants were 127 individuals with TTM and/or SPD (TTM/SPD) recruited from three sites (age 18-57, 84% female) and 26 healthy controls (HC). During fMRI, participants completed a shape-button associative learning and reversal fMRI task. Above-threshold clusters were identified where the Initial Learning-Reversals BOLD activation contrast differed significantly (p

Background. Executive functions are actively developing in children of preschool age. Executive functions’ development is also influenced by the way children are using digital devices. Joint media engagement is one of the parameters of digital device usage that has been poorly studied so far, although this is of great importance from the point of view of cultural-historical psychology. Objective. Our research aimed to explore the association between young children’s development of executive functions over a year, and their joint media engagement with parents and siblings in preschool children. Design. Four hundred ninety (490) typically developing children (52% of them were boys) participated in the study. It was a longitudinal study: during the first stage, the children were 5-6 years old; the second stage followed one year later. The NEPSY-II subtests (Inhibition, Statue, Memory for Designs, Sentences Repetition) and the Dimensional Change Card Sort were used to assess executive functions. A questionnaire for mothers was used to get information about the children’s joint media engagement and screen time. Results. Children who watched video content and played video games together with their siblings developed more inhibitory control over the year than those children who did it alone. Co-viewing of video content with parents was associated with a decrease in cognitive flexibility over the year, as opposed to watching it alone. Conclusion. The obtained data allows us to conclude that joint media engagement is important for executive functions development, and that there are optimal formats of joint media engagement. Based on the limitations of this study, recommendations for future research were suggested.

Background. Executive functions are one of the factors that contribute to the balanced development of children and their success in the future. In this regard, the study of factors that may influence the development of executive functions is an urgent task. The study examines the role of the kindergarten attendance duration in the development of working memory, cognitive flexibility and inhibition as components of executive functions in preschool children. Methods. The NEPSY-II battery subtests were used to test the level of development of regulatory functions. Data on the period of children's kindergarten attendance were collected according to preschool attendance journal. Sample. The study involved 947 children aged 53 to 86 months (Mage = 70.3; SDage = 4.3), 515 boys and 495 girls from Moscow, Kazan, and Sochi. Results. As a result of comparison of averages using Welch's criterion, significant differences were found in the development of regulatory functions in children with different periods of kindergarten attendance. The level of visual and verbal working memory development was significantly higher in children who attended kindergarten for more than two years as compared to children with shorter time of attendance. Physical inhibitory control is significantly lower in children who attend kindergarten for less than a year compared to those who attend kindergarten for longer periods of time. Significant differences were shown in the level of visual working memory development depending on the region and on the duration of attendance. Conclusion. The study demonstrated significant differences in the level of visual working memory, verbal working memory, and physical inhibitory control in children depending on the duration of kindergarten attendance. The highest scores were found in preschoolers attending kindergarten for more than two years. Thus, the results of the study emphasize the importance of kindergarten educational environment for successful cognitive development of preschoolers.

Introduction: The quality of sleep is a crucial aspect of clinical health, and poor sleep quality is becoming more prevalent among individuals, particularly students. Therefore, this study was conducted to investigate the relationship between cognitive flexibility and self-compassion with sleep quality among students, taking into account the mediating role of emotion regulation.Method: This research is a descriptive correlational study. The statistical population for this study included all students at Guilan University. For this purpose, a sample of 384 people was selected using a non-random sampling method. In order to collect data, a researcher-made demographic questionnaire was used along with Pittsburgh Boyce et al.'s sleep quality questionnaire (1989), Neff's self-compassion questionnaire (2003), Dennis and Vander Wall's cognitive flexibility questionnaire (2010), and Gross and John's emotion regulation questionnaire (2003). Data analysis was conducted using the Pearson correlation method and path analysis with SPSS-27 and Amos-24 software. Results: The analysis revealed a significant relationship among the three variables of cognitive flexibility, self-compassion, and emotion regulation, particularly with the sleep quality re-evaluation subscale (p0.05). The variables of cognitive flexibility, self-compassion, and reappraisal could account for 14 percent of the variance in sleep quality.Discussion and Conclusion: The research results indicate that emotion regulation, particularly the reappraisal subscale, mediates the connection between cognitive flexibility and self-compassion with sleep quality. Therefore, leveraging emotion regulation abilities, especially the reappraisal subscale, can be an effective therapeutic approach to enhance the sleep quality of students.

Abstract Background With the widespread adoption of smartphones, there has been a notable increase in problematic mobile phone use (PMPU), particularly prevalent among college students. Research suggests that apart from being associated with various problematic behaviors, this excessive mobile phone use might also have an impact on individual personality traits, such as time management disposition (TMD), which plays a significant role in individual motivation and psychological well-being. While previous literature has identified a negative relationship between PMPU and TMD, few studies have delved into the underlying mediating mechanism. Thus, the main aim of this study was to examine the chain mediating effect of sleep quality and cognitive flexibility on the relationship between PMPU and TMD. Methods A total of 921 Chinese college students completed the questionnaire. We collected basic information about the participants and assessed their PMPU, TMD, sleep quality, and cognitive flexibility using the Problematic Mobile Phone Use Scale-10, Adolescence Time Management Disposition Inventory, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index scale and Cognitive Flexibility Inventory. Results The results indicated a significant correlation among all the variables. Moreover, we noted that both sleep quality and cognitive flexibility fully mediated the association between PMPU and TMD. Additionally, a chain mediating effect involving sleep quality and flexibility in this relationship was also identified. Conclusion We found that sleep quality and cognitive flexibility had a series of multiple mediating effects in the pathway from PMPU to TMD, and both significantly mediated TMD. These findings indicated that impaired cognitive function and sleep quality may contribute to time management difficulties resulting from PMPU, suggesting that problematic behaviors like PMPU can impact one’s personality traits. Therefore, interventions should be enhanced to mitigate the adverse effects of PMPU.

This study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effect of acceptance and commitment therapy and self-compassion on cognitive flexibility in anxious female students of the second year of high school. The research method was semi-experimental in two stages: pre-test and post-test. In this study, 30 people were selected through convenience sampling and randomly assigned to two experimental groups and one control group (10 people in each group). Then the experimental groups underwent 8 sessions of acceptance and commitment and self-compassion therapy, and the control group did not receive any therapy. Anxiety questionnaire and cognitive flexibility scale were used to collect data. Data were analyzed using multivariate analysis of covariance. The results showed that in the post-test stage, there is a significant difference between the acceptance and commitment and self-compassion treatment groups compared to the control group in increasing cognitive flexibility. Also, the results showed that there is no significant difference between the two treatments of acceptance and commitment and self-compassion in terms of effectiveness on psychological flexibility. Based on the findings, both acceptance and commitment therapy and self-compassion are suitable options for increasing cognitive flexibility in anxious female students of the second secondary level. IntroductionOne of the psychological injuries and pressures that teenagers are exposed to is anxiety (Sattari & Erfani, 2019). Anxiety is related to cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch between strategies in a flexible way that usually takes place in response to changes and conditions (Clarke & Kiropoulos, 2021). It is also defined as the ability to maintain strategy and efficiency in the presence of distractions, which is impaired due to anxiety )Clarke & Kiropoulos, 2021; Park & Moghaddam, 2017; Zare & Baradaran, 2019(. Therefore, treating these problems is very important. Third-wave treatments such as acceptance and commitment therapy (Kelson et al., 2019; Zare, 2017) and self-compassion (Heidari et al., 2023; Shafieifar et al., 2022) are among the key interventions to treat anxiety symptoms. Acceptance and commitment therapy employs processes such as mindfulness, acceptance and commitment to increase psychological flexibility to help people with anxiety symptoms (Mahmoudfakhe, 2022). In the self-compassion approach, instead of criticizing themselves for their shortcomings and flaws, people support themselves and accept themselves unconditionally (Saadatmand et al., 2022). Since the third-wave treatments have been highly regarded by researchers and psychologists, comparing such treatments might be beneficial in several ways. For example, people pay a material and spiritual cost when receiving psychotherapy. Therefore, they should receive treatment that is more effective for their problem. As such, the current research seeks to compare the effectiveness of acceptance and commitment therapy and compassion-focused therapy for the cognitive flexibility of female students with anxiety symptoms in the second year of high school. MethodThe current research design was quasi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design with a control and experimental group and a 3-month follow-up. The statistical population consisted of all female students in the second grade of high school in Mahabad, Iran. Among the statistical population, one school was selected via the random cluster sampling method. In the next step, the selected school was referred to and 350 questionnaires were distributed among the students of that school, and finally, 30 students with anxiety symptoms were randomly assigned to two experimental groups (acceptance and commitment group and self-compassion group) and one control group. Then, the experimental groups received the acceptance and commitment treatment protocol (Hayes, 2008) and the compassion-based treatment protocol (Gilbert, 2009) for eight sessions (each 90 minutes). The research tools were: the Beck Anxiety Questionnaire (1991) and Dennis and Vander Wal's Cognitive Flexibility Questionnaire (2010). Descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics including repeated measurement analysis of variance were used to analyze the collected data. ResultsBefore running the analysis of variance test with repeated measurements, its presuppositions were checked. Shapiro-Wilk test was used to check the normality (p>0.05) and the assumption of normality of the data was confirmed. Box's M test confirmed the equality of the variance-covariance matrix in the desire to understand difficult situations (Box's M=33.13 , F=2.30 , p=0.06>0.05), the ability to understand several alternative explanations (Box's M=25.67 , F=1.78 , p=0.054>0.05), and the ability to create several solutions(Box's M=24.17 , F=1.68 , p=0.06>0.05). The assumption of sphericity was confirmed through the Mauchly test for the desire to understand difficult situations (Mauchly=0.633 , p=0.030.05). Also, these results showed that the post-test and follow-up have significant differences in each component compared to the pre-test. ConclusionThis study was conducted with the aim of comparing the effect of acceptance and commitment therapy and self-compassion on cognitive flexibility among female students with symptoms of anxiety in the second high school. The present study found that both treatments had the same effect on cognitive flexibility in people with anxiety. These results were consistent with the findings of other studies (Coto-Lesmes et al., 2020; Heidari et al., 2023; Kelson et al., 2019; Shafieifar et al., 2022). In explaining the results, it can be mentioned that one of the definite consequences of anxiety is the disorder in cognitive flexibility. Cognitive flexibility is the ability to switch between strategies in a flexible way that usually takes place in response to changes and conditions, and it is also defined as the ability to maintain strategy and efficiency in the presence of distractions, which is impaired due to anxiety. In this regard, acceptance and commitment therapy can reduce the symptoms of disorders through different strategies such as increasing attention and awareness, acceptance and letting go, being in the present moment, desensitization, observation without judgment, and desensitization. This therapy helps people to make changes in their dimensions when needed and to accept and adapt to an uncontrollable event. Also, through the strategy of mindfulness, people can focus on their current goals and ignore the factors that cause interference. Students participating in this research were able to separate themselves from unpleasant thoughts and events by placing themselves as context. Also, these people can learn how to let go of the central processes that caused intellectual inhibition. In other words, this treatment with behavioral commitment exercises and determining values and goals led to an increase in flexibility in students with anxiety symptoms.On the other hand, self-compassion includes suitable coping resources through which it can help people face the conditions and situations that are accompanied by anxiety. This approach puts a lot of emphasis on mindfulness. Mindfulness allows people, especially students, to focus their minds on the present moment and be aware of current stimuli, which leads to the development of cognitive flexibility. This therapy teaches people to accept themselves unconditionally, as a result, people may not try to change anything and adapt to the situation more easily. According to the mentioned cases, the treatment of self-compassion and acceptance and commitment have similar processes to reduce anxiety. Some of these processes include mindfulness, acceptance and creating a new relationship with oneself, thoughts, experiences and feelings. In other words, there are common features, goals and benefits between both treatment methods. Therefore, it is possible to justify the same effect of acceptance and commitment and self-compassion treatments on cognitive flexibility in students with anxiety symptoms.The current study has some limitations. For example, the sample was limited to female students in the second grade of high school in Mahabad, Iran. Also, the study relied mainly on the use of self-report tools for the variable of cognitive flexibility, which may provide superficial information and be associated with favoritism. Considering the limitations, it is suggested that this study be conducted with males, other age groups, clinical and non-clinical groups, and in other cities. It is suggested that third-wave treatments be compared with first and second-wave treatments regarding their effectiveness for psychological flexibility. At the practical level, it is also suggested that due to the same effect of methods based on acceptance and commitment and self-compassion, the necessary platform for the implementation of these methods should be created in schools. Ethical ConsiderationCompliance with Ethical Guidelines: All ethical issues such as confidentiality of participants' identity were attended to and informed consent were obtained from the participants.Authors’ Contributions: All steps of the article are done by the author of the article.Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest for this study. Funding: The authors received no financial support for the study. Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank all participants for their time and contribution to the study.

Chronic diseases such as celiac are the ones that cause much psychological damage in addition to physical damage. Resilience is one of the features that can make the patient tolerate these conditions. In this regard, the present study investigated the role of cognitive flexibility and mindfulness in predicting resilience in celiac patients. The statistical population of this correlational study included the patients with celiac disease in Gorgan, Iran. A number of 114 individuals were recruited by convenience sampling filled out the Cognitive Flexibility Scale, the Mindfulness Questionnaire (Bauer et al., 2006), and the Resilience scale. Then, the data were analyzed using Pearson correlation coefficient and step-by-step regression test. The results showed that cognitive flexibility and mindfulness could significantly predict resilience in celiac patients. In the first step, mindfulness was able to predict about 9% of the changes related to resilience, while cognitive flexibility and mindfulness in the second step were able to predict 17% of the variance. Consequently, cognitive flexibility and mindfulness can predict the resilience of celiac patients.IntroductionIn celiac disease, regardless of biological background and physical risk factors, various types of stress, stressful life events, and low levels of resilience are effective in aggravating it (Lee et al., 2019). Resilience is a protective factor against future risk factors that researchers are interested in (Mirmoradzehi Sibi & Sanagoi Moharrar, 2018). One of the most important promoters of this indicator is mindfulness (Mitchell, 2021; Rahimpour et al., 2021), paying attention to the present moment and accepting any thoughts and feelings without judgment (Clarkson et al, 2019). In the meantime, the role of cognitive flexibility is prominent, which refers to the ability to adapt efficiently, the ability to change thoughts and actions in response to the demands of situations and problems (Darby et al., 2018). The necessity of knowing the psychological factors involved in this disease is an important step in controlling and reducing the ill effects of this disease. Therefore, the present study was conducted with the aim of determining the role of mindfulness and cognitive flexibility in predicting the resilience of celiac patients. MethodThe sample of this descriptive-correlation study was 185 patients, according to Morgan's table, from all the patients of Celiac Society of Gorgan, Iran. They were selected using convenience sampling. The entry criteria in this study were being at least 18 years old and having a minimum education. In the end, 114 people volunteered to participate in this research and the data of these 114 people were analyzed. The tools used were Dennis and Vanderwaal's Cognitive Flexibility Scale (2010), Baer et al. (2006) Mindfulness Questionnaire, and Conner and Davidson's Resilience Scale (2003). Then, Pearson's correlation coefficient test and step-by-step regression were used to analyze research hypotheses in SPSS-16 statistical software. It should be noted that the present research was carried out in compliance with all ethical principles and confidentiality. ResultAccording to the correlation coefficient value (r=0.2) with a probability level of 95%, there was a significant relationship between cognitive flexibility and resilience in celiac patients (p≥0.02, 0.21 =r). In addition, there was a significant relationship between mindfulness and resilience of celiac patients (p ≥0.001, r=0.31). Next, in order to check the prediction of resilience based on mindfulness and cognitive flexibility in patients with celiac disease, a stepwise regression test was used. According to the amount of variance analysis, it was significant at the level of 0.001 to predict resilience in patients with celiac disease by the components of cognitive flexibility and mindfulness. Mindfulness was the first variable that entered the regression model and was able to explain about 9% of the changes related to the resilience variable in patients with celiac disease. The cognitive flexibility variable was also entered into the regression equation in the second step and along with the mindfulness variable was able to explain about 17% of the variance of resilience variable. In addition, in order to determine the difference between the real values ​​and the values ​​predicted by the regression model, Durbin-Watson's statistic was used. It was equal to 2.12, which indicates that the errors are independent in the range between 1 and 3. ConclusionThe results of this study confirm that cognitive flexibility and mindfulness can predict the resilience of celiac patients. The results are in line with the research results of Clarkson et al. (2019), Meyer et al. (2019), Rezaei (2019). In general, it can be mentioned that in patients with celiac disease, due to long-term involvement with the disease, have weak strength and ability to control impulses and communicate effectively with peers, especially in conflict situations, mindfulness helps people overcome difficult conditions and achieve a higher level of resilience (Sunbul & Guneri, 2019). In addition, people who have flexible thinking, use alternative justifications, positively reconstruct their thinking framework and accept challenging situations or stressful events (Baradaran & Ranjbar Noushari, 2021).The limitations of this study include time limit, the researcher's facilities, the existing deficiencies and obstacles, and the sample group only including patients with celiac disease who were members of the Celiac Society of Gorgan. Also, not paying attention to some psychological and demographic variables was considered as another limitation of the current research, which can threat the internal validity. Therefore, it is suggested to investigate the role of some moderating variables in future studies. In conclusion, it is recommended to prevent the transformation of non-adaptive strategies into fixed and resistant styles by training mindfulness and cognitive flexibility, and as a result, increase the growth of resilience. Ethical considerationsThe present research was carried out in compliance with all ethical principles and *. Corresponding author

Abstract Background Social Axioms are generalized beliefs and broad assumptions about the world, guiding behaviors across various social situations. Social Axioms are usually assessed by Social Axioms Survey II (SAS II). Nevertheless, the length of the scale may limit its usefulness in studies with strict time constraint. The present study aimed at developing a shorter version. Methods A survey was conducted among 455 college students. First, we performed psychometric evaluation on the full item version of SAS II to identify items with superior psychometric properties for a brief version of SAS II. Second, we validated the psychometric properties of the brief version of SAS II. Results A 20-item version of SAS II (SAS II-20) was developed, and it demonstrated adequate reliability and validity. The correlations between SAS II-20 and personality variables, cognitive flexibility, interpersonal trust, locus of control, and paranormal beliefs were consistent with past studies. Conclusions SAS II-20 is psychometrically acceptable and provides a time-efficient measurement tool for investigating social beliefs.

Adults do not engage in enough physical activity. Investigating cognitive and physiological factors related to improving this behavior—and reducing health risks—remains a public health priority. Our objective was to assess whether cognitive flexibility influenced perceptions and choice of exercise programs and whether flexibility was associated with cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factors. Independent sample groups of college-aged adults (18–24 yrs) participated in two studies. Data were collected on individuals’ degree of cognitive flexibility (both self-reported and objectively measured), perceptions and choice of exercise programs, and health status markers known to be associated with CVD (vascular function, muscular strength, and body composition). Vascular function was assessed with a near-infrared spectroscopy device, strength was defined as handgrip, and body composition was estimated via digital circumferences. Self-reported flexibility reliably predicted individuals’ choice of exercise program and perceptions of effort required for success on an exercise program. The relationships among CVD risk factors and objectively measured cognitive flexibility were not significant, demonstrating that identifying a healthy individual’s degree of performance-based cognitive flexibility does not predict health status. Furthermore, although greater self-reported trait flexibility (rigidity) is known to predict higher (lower) likelihood of physical activity, this finding should not be extrapolated to also assume that flexibility (rigidity), as measured by objective cognitive tests, is associated with reduced CVD risk in healthy adults. We posit a rationale for how understanding cognitive flexibility and rigidity can play an impactful role in improving adherence to exercise prescriptions targeted to reducing risks.

Neurocognitive deficits, such as cognitive flexibility impairments, are common in bipolar disorder (BD) and predict poor academic, occupational, and functional outcomes. However, the association between neurocognition and illness trajectory is not well understood, especially across developmental transitions. This study examined cognitive flexibility and subsequent mood symptom and suicidal ideation (SI) course in young adults with childhood-onset BD-I (with distinct mood episodes) vs. BD-not otherwise specified (BD-NOS) vs. typically-developing controls (TDCs). Sample included 93 young adults (ages 18-30) with prospectively verified childhood-onset DSM-IV BD-I (n = 34) or BD-NOS (n = 15) and TDCs (n = 44). Participants completed cross-sectional neuropsychological tasks and clinical measures. Then participants with BD completed longitudinal assessments of mood symptoms and SI at 6-month intervals (M = 39.18 ± 16.57 months of follow-up data). Analyses included ANOVAs, independent-samples t tests, chi-square analyses, and multiple linear regressions. Participants with BD-I had significant deficits in cognitive flexibility and executive functioning vs. BD-NOS and TDCs, and impaired spatial working memory vs. TDCs only. Two significant BD subtype-by-cognitive flexibility interactions revealed that cognitive flexibility deficits were associated with subsequent percentage of time depressed and with SI in BD-I but not BD-NOS, regardless of other neurocognitive factors (full-scale IQ, executive functioning, spatial working memory) and clinical factors (current and prior mood and SI symptoms, age of BD onset, global functioning, psychiatric medications, comorbidity). Thus, cognitive flexibility may be an important etiological brain/behavior mechanism, prognostic indicator, and intervention target for childhood-onset BD-I, as this deficit appears to endure into young adulthood and is associated with worse prognosis for subsequent depression and SI.

This research examines the mediating role of stereotype modification in the relationship between social dominance orientation (SDO) and multicultural acceptance in South Korea’s increasingly diverse society. We obtained a sample of 402 participants between the ages of 20 and 65 through an online survey. We used SPSS 26.0 for statistical analyses, including frequency, correlation, and regression analyses. Employing Hayes’ Model 4, we examined the mediation effect with a bootstrap sample of 10,000 iterations, determining the significance of the effect with a 95% confidence interval (CI). The results revealed nuanced relationships among the variables, shedding light on the complex dynamics of social cognition and intergroup relationships in the South Korean context. The research concludes that individuals with a higher social dominance orientation tend to have lower acceptance of multiculturalism and are more likely to hold prejudiced attitudes toward outgroups. This finding suggests that SDO is a significant factor in integrating and adapting migrants into host societies and can lead to social conflict. The study implies that addressing SDO is crucial for fostering positive attitudes toward multiculturalism and reducing discrimination.

Although the cognitive flexibility (CF) of preschool children has been extensively studied, the development of CF in children around three years old is unclear. This study aimed to investigate the CF of three-year-olds in a stepwise rule-induction task (sRIT) comprising nine steps in which children are encouraged to switch attention to a new rule and then implicitly inhibit the old one. A pair of boxes was displayed at each step, and children aged 2.5 to 3.5 years were asked to select the target. When children learned a rule (e.g., the shape rule), they were encouraged to switch rules through negative feedback. The results showed that most children (81.10%) passed at least one of the two sets of the sRIT, and children over the age of three years performed better than those under three years. Additionally, a positive correlation existed between rule switching and rule generalization, whereby the old rule was implicitly inhibited. These findings indicate that age three might be a milestone in the development of CF, and inhibitory control might play a vital role in rule switching.

Although cognitive control and flexibility have been examined in the past, this study examines their relationship in a stressful working environment, focusing on intrinsic job satisfaction using cognitive behavioral theory as a framework. This study examined cognitive factors (cognitive control and cognitive flexibility) and emotional state (intrinsic job satisfaction) while assessing the mediating role of social isolation, an external work environment variable. The study focused on intrinsic job satisfaction with extrinsic job satisfaction as a covariate. A cross-sectional questionnaire method was used. Two hundred and ten nurses from twelve intensive care units participated. Model one examined cognitive control while model two examined cognitive flexibility, accounting for 32% and 38% of the variance in intrinsic job satisfaction, respectively. Model one accounted for 13% of the variance in social isolation through cognitive control and extrinsic job satisfaction while model two accounted for approximately 14.91% of the variance in social isolation through cognitive flexibility and extrinsic job satisfaction. Combining the two models accounted for 17% of the variance in social isolation and 37.4% of the variation in intrinsic job satisfaction. The results emphasize the importance of training nurses in cognitive control and flexibility to increase intrinsic job satisfaction.

The mammalian dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) receives diverse inputs and plays important roles in adaptive behavior and cognitive flexibility. Stress, a major risk factor for many psychiatric disorders, compromises the structure and function of multiple brain regions and circuits. Here we show that 7-day restraint stress impairs reversal learning in the 4-choice odor discrimination test, a decision-making task requiring an intact dmPFC. In vivo two-photon imaging further reveals that stress increases dmPFC dendritic spine elimination, particularly those of the mushroom morphology, without affecting spine formation. In addition, stress alters dmPFC microglial branching complexity and elevates their terminal process dynamics. In stressed mice, dmPFC microglia contact dendrites more frequently, and dendritic spines with microglial contact are prone to elimination. In summary, our work suggests that stress-induced changes in glial-synapse interaction contributes to synaptic loss in dmPFC, resulting in neuronal circuit deficits and impaired cognitive flexibility.

Background. Voluntary control of goal-directed behavior and mental activity in preschool children plays a key role in knowledge acquisition and future academic achievement. Studies of voluntary control have mainly concerned 6-8-year- old children; much less is known about the ability to exercise voluntary control at early ages. Due to the high prognostic value of the level of development of voluntary control and heterogeneous development of their individual components, it seems actually useful to study age-related changes of these components in children from 3-4 to 4-5 years old. Objective. To compare age-related changes in executive functions (EF) in children age 3-4 years (mean age: 3.5±0.2 yrs; n = 49; 31 boys) and 4-5 years (mean age: 4.5±0.3 yrs; n = 70; 35 boys). Design. To assess the different components of EF we used: 1) a qualitative group and individual testing procedure based on the principles of Luria’s theory of the dynamic localization and organization of higher mental functions; and 2) a computerized testing procedure which included the Bourdon-Wiersma cancellation test, the “Hearts and Flowers” conflict test (the Dots task), and the Corsi block-tapping test. Results. The results showed that different components of voluntary control developed at different rates (heterochronically): there were significant progressive changes from 3-4 to 4-5 years for working memory, assimilation of instructions, switching between separate actions, selective concentration on a target or task, and the distribution of attention. Some other components of EF did not show significant positive dynamics during this period. Conclusion. The results indicate the importance of applying the activity theory approach to the development of cognitive processes in preschool age.

During the coronavirus epidemic, the purpose of this study was to determine the effect of the flipped learning method on the flexibility, cognition, and academic motivation of male students. The method was quasi-experimental and applied in terms of purpose; it is a component of the pre-test, post-test, and control group design. In the academic year of 2020-2021, the statistical population consisted solely of male fifth-grade elementary school students in the city of Shahreza. A primary school for males was chosen at random, and 40 students were selected using the available sampling method and divided into two groups of 20 using randomization. Experiments and witnesses have been substituted. The experimental group underwent 10 training sessions using pre-prepared online training modules, whereas the c​ontrol group received traditional training. All participants in both groups completed pre- and post-tests utilizing the Harter Academic Motivation Scale (HEMS) and the Dennis and Vanderwall Cognitive Flexibility Scale (CFI). The collected data were analyzed using covariance analysis and IBM SPSS (version 26) software. Post-test analysis of covariance revealed that the flipped learning method improved cognitive flexibility and academic motivation in the experimental group relative to the control group (p

IntroductionCognitive flexibility is the ability to adapt to changing tasks or problems, while emotion understanding is the ability to interpret emotional cues and information in different contexts. Both abilities are crucial for preschoolers’ socialization.MethodsThis study selected 532 preschool children aged 3–6 years from two kindergartens in a central province of China. The Dimensional Change Card Sorting (DCCS) task and emotion understanding tasks were used to investigate the developmental characteristics of cognitive flexibility, emotion understanding abilities, and their relationship.ResultsThe results showed: (1) For cognitive flexibility, children older than 5 years scored significantly higher than younger children, and girls scored higher than boys. (2) For facial emotion recognition: (i) Children’s recognition scores for happy, sad, and angry expressions were significantly higher than fear; children could accurately recognize happy, sad, and angry emotions by age 3, while fear recognition developed rapidly after age 5; (ii) Girls scored higher in recognizing fearful faces than boys. (3) For situational emotion understanding: (i) Children’s development followed the hierarchical order of external, desire, clue, and belief-based understanding. Situational and desire-based understanding already reached high levels by age 3, while clue and belief-based understanding developed quickly after age 5; (ii) Girls scored higher than boys in belief-based emotion understanding. (4) Cognitive flexibility significantly predicted children’s facial emotion recognition, external and desire-based emotion understanding.DiscussionParents and teachers should cultivate children’s cognitive flexibility and provide personalized support. They should also fully grasp the characteristics of children’s emotion understanding development, systematically nurture their emotion understanding abilities, and leverage cognitive flexibility training to improve their emotion understanding.

Emotion regulation plays a key role in well adapted behaviour, however, factors influencing individual differences in ER are still under investigation. Across two studies we investigate the complex relationship between executive functions (EFs) and emotional downregulation through two complementary research designs. The focus lies on key components of EFs—working memory, inhibitory control, and switching—and their relationship with effective emotional regulation. Surprisingly, switching emerged as the sole significant predictor in two multiple linear regression models, challenging the conventional belief that all major EFs broadly contribute to emotional downregulation. The first study, involving 248 Ecuadorian adults between 18 and 60 years old, used experimental tasks to assess the association between EFs and emotional regulation, aligning with existing literature that posits a link between EFs and emotional control. The second study, involving 180 Ecuadorian adults between 18 and 43 years old, added depth by incorporating self-report measures, providing a broader, ecologically valid perspective. However, these measures did not significantly predict downregulation, highlighting a gap between self-perception and actual cognitive abilities. Additionally, demographic predictors varied between the two studies, urging future research to consider methodological design and task selection carefully. The study also raises questions about the validity of commonly used measures, emphasising the need for more nuanced tools to capture the complexity of EFs and emotional regulation. Our findings suggest a targeted research avenue focusing on EFs for both future research and clinical interventions. Attention is called to the methodological decisions that can influence the observed associations, and the need for broader demographic representation in future studies.

Excessive gameplay can have negative effects on both mental and physical health, especially among young people. Nowadays, social media platforms are bombarding users with gaming-related content daily. Understanding the effect of this content on people’s behavior is essential to gain insight into problematic gaming habits. However, this issue is yet to be studied extensively. In this study, we examined how gaming-related content on social media affects young adults explicitly and implicitly. We studied 25 healthy young adults (average age 21.5 ± 2.2) who played online games casually and asked them to report their gaming desire. We also conducted an implicit association test (IAT) to measure their implicit attitudes toward gaming-related content. We also investigated the relationship between these measures and various psychological factors, such as personality traits, self-efficacy, impulsiveness, and cognitive flexibility. The results revealed that participants had a higher explicit gaming desire when exposed to gaming-related cues on social media than neutral cues. They also had a robust positive implicit attitude toward gaming-related content on social media. Explicit gaming desire was positively correlated with neuroticism levels. Furthermore, the IAT effect was negatively correlated with self-efficacy and cognitive flexibility levels. However, there were no significant correlations between explicit gaming desire/IAT effect and impulsiveness levels. These findings suggest that gaming-related content on social media can affect young adults’ behavior both explicitly and implicitly, highlighting the need for further research to prevent gaming addiction in vulnerable individuals.