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The article discusses the introduction of vaccines for the prevention of diseases from 1961-2011. It mentions that vaccines were received by children in the U.S. in 1961 for the prevention of various diseases including pertussis, poliomyelitis, and smallpox. It adds that a nationwide immunization program was established from 1961-1988.

Although vaccines are studied intensively before licensure, insight into important aspects of vaccine performance and the effectiveness of immunization programs and policies can only be detected after vaccines enter widespread use. Now that 17 diseases are targeted for prevention through routine immunizations in the USA, reassessment of the nation's vaccine-preventable disease-monitoring efforts is appropriate. Postlicensure disease monitoring has permitted recognition of indirect protection, vaccine effectiveness of various schedules, duration of protection, health disparities, importation patterns and microbial adaptation. The investments in vaccine research, development and regulatory procedures prelicensure, as well as resources devoted to purchase, distribution and delivery of vaccines after introduction, necessitate strategic efforts to monitor the impact of large-scale use of vaccines on disease over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses various factors related to haemophilus influenzae. Though the impact of influenzae can also be seen among adults, the vast majority of cases of haemophilus influenzae had concentrated among children. Though microbiologists have taken many positive steps toward creating effectives vaccines, the complete eradication of the disease is not possible without long-term monitoring of immunization programs.

This article focuses on the incidence and characteristics of invasive disease due to group B streptococci (GBS) among neonatal in Great Britain and Wales. Development and licensure of an adolescent or maternal GBS vaccine is likely the most effective and sustainable longterm prevention strategy for a wide range of hospital settings and countries. If immunity does not wane rapidly, a single vaccine series may be sufficient to protect women throughout their childbearing years. Although adolescent vaccination strategies would alleviate concerns about vaccination during pregnancy and might prevent adverse outcomes during early pregnancy.

Outbreaks and sporadic cases of meningococcal disease among college students have prompted consideration of a policy of routine vaccination for this group. Purchase and administration of the vaccine for routine vaccination would cost $56 million per year. Savings in medical care and indirect costs would not equal this amount unless the annual rate of disease among students is at least 6.5/100 000. The actual rate among students in unknown; however, surveillance data suggest it could not be more than 1.3/100 000. At rates near this estimate, the net cost of the program would be approximately $45 million annually. More cost-effective prevention strategies might be yielded by further studies to identify students at substantial risk of meningococcal disease, or by the development of a conjugate serogroup C vaccine that could be administered during infancy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The author reflects on her personal experiences during the 2009 H1N1 influenza, acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) pandemics. The roles played by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention related to pregnancy-associated influenza during the 2009 pandemic are described. Risk communication principles are summarized and resources provided. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The article focuses on the screening and prevention of neonatal group B streptococcal disease. Group B streptococcus became the leading cause of life-threatening infections in newborns during the 1970s. Infants with group B streptococcal disease have sepsis, meningitis, or pneumonia. Efforts to promote prevention in the U.S. culminated in the publication of a uniform set of recommendations by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists and the American Academy of Pediatrics. The article refers to a study that describes a method for the detection of group B streptococcus by using two polymerase-chain-reaction techniques.

Abstract: We evaluated invasive pneumococcal disease (IPD), antimicrobial resistance and nasopharyngeal colonization before and after introduction of pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) in Alaska Natives (AN), a population with high IPD rates. We obtained IPD rates from population-based surveillance. Colonization was determined from annual surveys among rural AN of all ages and from urban children. After vaccine introduction, vaccine-type IPD rates declined by 91% among AN children <2 years, by 80% among non-Natives <2 years, and by 40% for adults of all races (P <0.001 each). IPD decreased for isolates resistant to penicillin, erythromycin and cotrimoxazole (P <0.001 each). Vaccine-type colonization decreased among rural and urban children <5 years and among rural adults (P <0.001 each). PCV7 vaccine has eliminated a longstanding disparity of vaccine-type IPD for AN children. Decreased vaccine-type colonization and IPD in adults demonstrate indirect vaccine effects. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background The prevalence of macrolide resistance in Streptococcus pneumoniae has risen in recent years after the introduction of new macrolides and their increased use. We assessed emergence of macrolide-resistant invasive S pneumoniae disease in Atlanta, GA, USA, before and after the licensing, in February 2000, of the heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine for young children. Methods Prospective population-based surveillance was used to obtain pneumococcal isolates and demographic data from patients with invasive pneumococcal disease. We calculated cumulative incidence rates for invasive pneumococcal disease for 1994-2002 using population estimates and census data from the US Census Bureau. Findings The incidence of invasive pneumococcal disease in Atlanta fell from 30.2 per 100000 population (mean annual incidence 1994-99) to 13.1 per 100 000 in 2002 (p,0.0001). Striking reductions were seen in children younger than 2 years (82% decrease) and in those 2-4 years (71% decrease), age-groups targeted to receive pneumococcal conjugate vaccine. Significant declines were also noted in adults aged 20-39 (54%), 40-64 (25%), and 65 years and older (39%). Macrolide resistance in invasive S pneumoniae disease in Atlanta, after increasing steadily from 4.5 per 100000 in 1994 to 9.3 per 100 000 in 1999, fell to 2.9 per 100000 by 2002. Reductions in disease caused by mefE-mediated and erm-mediated macrolide-resistant isolates of conjugate-vaccine serotypes 6B, 9V, 19F, and 23F, and the vaccine-associated serotype 6A were also recorded. Interpretation Vaccines can be a powerful strategy for reducing antibiotic resistance in a community. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: In early 2000, a protein–polysaccharide conjugate vaccine targeting seven pneumococcal serotypes was licensed in the United States for use in young children. Methods: We examined population-based data from the Active Bacterial Core Surveillance of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to evaluate changes in the burden of invasive disease, defined by isolation of Streptococcus pneumoniae from a normally sterile site. Serotyping and susceptibility testing of isolates were performed. We assessed trends using data from seven geographic areas with continuous participation from 1998 through 2001 (population, 16 million). Results: The rate of invasive disease dropped from an average of 24.3 cases per 100,000 persons in 1998 and 1999 to 17.3 per 100,000 in 2001. The largest decline was in children under two years of age. In this group, the rate of disease was 69 percent lower in 2001 than the base-line rate (59.0 cases per 100,000 vs. 188.0 per 100,000, P<0.001); the rate of disease caused by vaccine and vaccine-related serotypes declined by 78 percent (P<0.001) and 50 percent (P<0.001), respectively. Disease rates also fell for adults; as compared with base line, the rate of disease in 2001 was 32 percent lower for adults 20 to 39 years of age (7.6 cases per 100,000 vs. 11.2 per 100,000, P<0.001), 8 percent lower for those 40 to 64 years of age (19.7 per 100,000 vs. 21.5 per 100,000, P=0.03), and 18 percent lower for those 65 years of age or more (49.5 per 100,000 vs. 60.1 per 100,000, P<0.001). The rate of disease caused by strains that were not susceptible to penicillin was 35 percent lower in 2001 than in 1999 (4.1 cases per 100,000 vs. 6.3 per 100,000, P<0.001). Conclusions: The use of the pneumococcal conjugate vaccine is preventing disease in young children, for whom the vaccine is indicated, and may be reducing the rate of disease in adults. The vaccine provides an effective new tool for reducing disease caused by drug-resistant strains. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1737-46. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]