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Using data with detailed instructor employment information from a state college system, this study examines disciplinary variations in the characteristics and effects of non-tenure-track faculty hired through temporary and long-term employment. We identify substantial differences in demographic and employment characteristics between the two types of non-tenure-line faculty, where the differences are most pronounced in science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and health-related fields (STEM) at 4-year colleges. Using an instrumental variables strategy to address student sorting, our analyses indicate that taking introductory courses with temporary adjuncts reduces subsequent interest, and the effects are particularly large in STEM fields at 4-year colleges. Long-term non-tenure faculty are generally comparable with tenure-track faculty in student subsequent interest, but tenure-track faculty are associated with better subsequent performance in a handful of fields.

This article documents the patterns of White-Black and White-Hispanic enrollment gaps in Advanced Placement (AP) and Dual Enrollment (DE) programs across thousands of school districts in the United States by merging several data sources. We show that the vast majority of districts have racial enrollment gaps in both programs, with wider gaps in AP than DE. Results from fractional regression models indicate that geographic variations in these gaps can be explained by both local and state factors. We also find that district-level resources and state policies that provide greater access to AP and DE are also associated with wider racial enrollment gaps, implying that greater resources may engender racial disparity without adequate efforts to provide equitable access and support for minority students.

With the rapid growth of online learning at community colleges and the low course completion and performance associated with it, there has been increasing need to identify effective ways to address the challenges in online teaching and learning at this setting. Based on open-ended survey responses from 105 instructors and 365 students from multiple community colleges in a state, this study examined instructors' and students' perceptions of effective and ineffective instructional practices and changes needed in online coursework. By combining structural topic modelling techniques with human coding, we identified instructional practices that were perceived by both instructors and students as effective in supporting online learning as well as ineffective and needing improvement. Moreover, we identified a handful of misalignments between instructors and students in their perceptions of online teaching, including course workload and effective ways to communicate.

To understand instruction during the spring 2020 transition to emergency distance learning (EDL), we surveyed a sample of instructors teaching undergraduate EDL courses at a large university in the southwest. We asked them how frequently they used and how confident they were in their ability to implement each of nine promising practices, both for their spring 2020 EDL course and a time when they previously taught the same course face-to-face (F2F). Using latent class analysis, we examined how behavioral frequencies and confidence clustered to form meaningful groups of instructors, how these groups differed across F2F and EDL contexts, and what predicted membership in EDL groupings. Results suggest that in the EDL context, instructors fell into one of three profiles in terms of how often they used promising practices: Highly Supportive, Instructor Centered, and More Detached. When moving from the F2F to EDL context, instructors tended to shift "down" in terms of their profile--for example, among F2F Highly Supportive instructors, 34% shifted to the EDL Instructor Centered profile and 30% shifted to the EDL More Detached Profile. Instructors who reported lower self-efficacy for EDL practices were also more likely to end up in the EDL More Detached profile. These results can assist universities in understanding instructors' needs in EDL, and what resources, professional development, and institutional practices may best support instructor and student experiences.

Like all educational institutions, community colleges rapidly shifted to online instruction in the wake of the COVID-19 pandemic. However, little is known about what factors shaped individual college responses. This survey of distance education leaders (N = 45) in the California community colleges system aimed to: (a) characterize pre-COVID distance education resources, emergency responses to the pandemic, and readiness for online instruction in the fall, and (b) determine how pre-COVID distance education resources, emergency responses, and fall readiness relate to each other. We find wide variability in pre-COVID distance education resources. These preexisting resources were related to institutions' responses: Colleges with fewer pre-COVID resources focused on foundational efforts such as creating online student services, while institutions with greater pre-COVID resources offered somewhat broader responses to training students and faculty in skills to successfully transition online. Finally, although colleges improved their readiness for continued remote instruction in the fall term in terms of training faculty and providing students with technology to access classes, respondents estimated that roughly a third of students would still face barriers accessing remote classes.

Existing research indicates that underrepresented-in-STEM racially minoritized students with similar academic preparation are less likely than their counterparts to persist in STEM, raising the question of factors that may contribute to racial disparities in STEM participation beyond academic preparation. We extend the current literature by first examining race-based differences in what students expect to receive and their actual grades in introductory STEM college courses, a phenomenon termed as overestimation. Then, we assess whether overestimation differentially influences STEM interest and persistence in college. Findings indicate that first-year STEM students tend to overestimate their performance in general, and the extent of overestimation is more pronounced among racially minoritized students. Subsequent analyses indicate that students who overestimate are more likely to switch out of STEM, net of academic preparation. Results from regression models suggest that race-based differences in overestimation can be explained by pre-college academic and contextual factors, most notably the high school a student attended.

Online learning has been increasing rapidly at community colleges, especially in low-division high-demand coursework, such as developmental education. While existing studies have identified negative effects associated with online instruction in semester-long coursework in this particular setting, there is less evidence about how distance learning influences students' completion of developmental education coursework and, more importantly, their subsequent academic outcomes. This paper examines the impact of fully online instruction, compared with traditional face-to-face instruction, on both concurrent developmental course outcomes and downstream outcomes. We use an administrative dataset from a state community college system that includes longitudinal student-unit record data from more than 40,000 students enrolled in developmental education courses between 2005 and 2012, and employ a two-way fixed effects model that controls for selection both at the course- and student-level. We find that taking one's first developmental course through the online format reduces developmental course completion rate by 13 percentage points and subsequent enrollment in the gatekeeper course by 7 percentage points. Successful completion of developmental and subsequent gateway coursework represents critical milestones among community college students. This paper provides insight on how delivery format influences both the concurrent and downstream outcomes of developmental education students.

In this case study, we investigated the effectiveness of growth mindset and social belonging interventions in a college setting with large numbers of traditionally underrepresented groups (n = 1,091). In doing so, we highlight the characteristics of the students in our study that are important for determining whether we should expect such interventions to be effective for diverse higher education populations. Correlational analyses revealed no evidence that growth mindset or social belonging were barriers to academic success among targeted subgroups in our sample. Additionally, we found no evidence that underrepresented minority, first-generation, or low-income students substantially endorsed fixed mindset or belonging uncertainty measures at baseline. We discuss benefits of testing basic assumptions for interpreting null results, including choosing the most appropriate interventions, accurately identifying subgroups who face psychological barriers to academic success, and establishing "redundancy thresholds" at which messages do not need to be reinforced by interventions. [This article was published in "AERA Open" (EJ1280132).]

Nationally, 15% of first-time community college students were high school dual enrollment (DE) students, which raises concerns about how high school peers might influence college enrollees. Using administrative data from a large state community college system, we examine whether being exposed to a higher percentage of DE peers in entry-level (gateway) math and English courses influences non-DE enrollees' performance. Using a two-way fixed effects model, our results indicate that college enrollees exposed to a higher proportion of DE peers had lower pass rates and grades in gateway courses, and higher course repetition rates. Supplemental student-level analysis suggests that greater exposure to DE peers during a student's initial semester in college reduces next-term college persistence.

Distance learning is expanding rapidly in universities. While theoretical and qualitative literature stress the critical role of effective interpersonal interactions in motivating students and facilitating learning in online environments, quantitative evidence on the benefits of increased interpersonal interactions on student learning outcomes is limited. This study examines the effect of providing a voluntary in-person meeting time in a physical classroom and increasing instructor email activity in a fully online precalculus course at a public university. We examine student final exam score and course grade as outcome variables. Student selection into courses was minimal since students only had access to one treatment condition at a time. We further used a propensity score matching strategy to address demographic variations in student characteristics across cohorts. Our results indicate that the increased interpersonal interaction opportunities increased final exam scores by 0.22 standard deviations and improved passing rates by 19 percentage points. Rosenbaum's sensitivity analysis indicates that it is unlikely that these results are due to omitted variable bias.

Based on a novel data set that links college administrative information with earnings records from a state college system for both public two-year and four-year colleges, this study quantifies the impacts of exposure to different types of instructors during students' initial semester in college on their subsequent academic and labor market outcomes. To minimize bias from student sorting by type of instructor, we combine course-set fixed effects with an instrumental variables approach that exploits term-by-term fluctuations in faculty composition in each department, therefore controlling for both between- and within-course sorting. The findings suggest that two-year students, particularly racial minority students, have substantially higher levels of exposure to adjuncts with temporary appointments than four-year students. Two-year students taking a heavy course schedule with temporary adjuncts are adversely affected in college persistence and subsequent credit accumulation, and the penalty is particularly pronounced among males and racial minority students with stronger academic potential. Such negative impacts on academic outcomes do not translate into poorer short- to medium-term labor market performance. In the four-year setting, no significant distinction is identified between different types of instructors on either student academic or labor market outcomes.

Using the Education Longitudinal Study of 2002 (ELS:2002), this paper analyzes students' baccalaureate attainment and early labor market performance, comparing 2-year college and 4-year institution entrants and exploring the potential heterogeneous treatment effects of initiating one's college experience in a 2-year college by individual pre-college academic preparation. Utilizing propensity score matching on a rich set of student demographic characteristics, academic and high school attributes, we find that 2-year college entry sharply reduces baccalaureate aspirants' likelihood of earning a baccalaureate, and such negative effects are particularly pronounced for students in the highest quartile of pre-college math ability. In terms of labor market outcomes, female 2-year college entrants are less likely to gain full-time employment, as compared to their female 4-year institution counterparts. We also examine various mechanisms that may hinder 2-year college entrants' baccalaureate completion, including the impact of 2-year college attendance on early academic progress, challenges of the transfer process, loss of credits at the point of transfer, and post-transfer academic shock. Our results provide suggestive evidence in support of all four mechanisms.

This article presents new quasi-experimental evidence regarding the effectiveness of teaching-oriented faculty with tenure-track appointment, a model pioneered at the University of California (UC) system. Using data from six cohorts of students at a UC campus, we examine the impact of initial course-taking with three distinct types of instructors--tenure-track research faculty, tenure track teaching faculty, and contingent lecturers--on students' current and subsequent academic outcomes. Descriptive analyses indicate that tenure-track teaching faculty assume a substantially larger teaching load than either research faculty or lecturers. Using a three-way fixed effects model, we find limited evidence supporting differences by faculty type on either current or downstream student outcomes.

Despite steady investment in English language education made by developing countries over the past few decades, results continue to be constrained by lack of high-quality instructors and language learning resources. Thus, using technology in language instruction has increasingly been recognized as a potential approach for addressing these constraints. This study uses administrative data from a large public university in Mexico to examine the impact of a technology-enhanced blended program on students' English course grades and course completion rates. Specifically, we focus on a campus-wide policy change in all compulsory English language courses that replaces half of the traditional face-to-face class time with an interactive online learning environment developed by a leading technology-mediated English language learning and assessment provider. Our results suggest that, compared to traditional face-to-face instruction, blended learning had a significant, positive impact on students' course grades and course completion rates. In addition, the enrollment-teacher ratio increased after replacing half of the face-to-face instructional time with online learning, suggesting that blended learning environments hold promise for providing high-quality and cost-effective language instruction.

Objective: This study examines the characteristics, course enrollment patterns, and academic outcomes of students who started their college careers in noncredit courses. Method: Drawing upon a rich dataset that includes transcript and demographic information on both for-credit and noncredit students in multiple institutions, this study explores the demographic and academic profiles of students enrolled in various fields of noncredit education, their course performance in noncredit programs, their educational intent upon initial enrollment, and their transition to the for-credit sector among degree-seeking students. Results: Our results support recent evidence from qualitative studies and studies from a single institution that students enrolled in noncredit programs tend to be adult learners and are typically from a lower socioeconomic background than credit students at community colleges. Yet, more than half of the noncredit students drop out of college after their initial term, even among students who expressed intent to transition to credit-bearing programs. The idiosyncratic patterns of course enrollment and transition to credential programs seem to suggest that there is no general structured pathway or institutional support for credential-seeking noncredit students. Contributions: This article is among one of the first attempts that use student transcript data from multiple institutions to provide a comprehensive understanding of noncredit students and their academic outcomes. Results from this study highlight the importance of future research in exploring institutional services and structures that may effectively facilitate the academic progression and success of noncredit students.

Understanding the relative impacts of part-time adjuncts in community colleges is highly policy-relevant, partly because community colleges rely on part-time faculty heavily and partly because community colleges assume a critical role in addressing the national equity agenda by disproportionately serving underrepresented groups. This study uses individual transcript data to explore how initial exposure to a particular field of study with part-time adjuncts influences student performance in current and subsequent course performance in community colleges. To address selection bias, I use two empirical strategies, a two-way fixed effects model and an instrumental variable approach. The results consistently suggest that part-time adjuncts are associated with higher grades in contemporaneous courses but have negative impacts on subsequent course performance.

Using detailed administrative data from Virginia, this paper examines whether community college "vertical transfer" students who resemble "native four-year" students in their accumulated college-level credits and performance at their point of entry into the four-year sector perform equally well in terms of both academic and labor market outcomes. We compare matching strategies typically used in existing literature to one where we match vertical transfer and native four-year students based on prior credits earned, accumulative GPA, and the destination four-year institution, and find substantial differences in estimates based on different matching strategies. We also examine potential mechanisms underlying vertical transfer students' relative performance at the four-year institution and in the labor market. The results show that vertical transfer students' probability of baccalaureate attainment is comparable to that of similar native students attending the same four-year institution. However, when considering their earnings eight years after initial college enrollment, vertical transfer students experience a significant and nontrivial earnings penalty. Subsequent analyses examining possible mechanisms suggest the earning decrement is partly due to a delayed entry into the labor market as a result of credit loss at the point of transfer.

Developmental education is the most common approach used by community colleges to assist underprepared students for college-level course work. Yet there is limited evidence regarding this strategy on students assigned to the lowest level of the developmental sequence. This paper extends current knowledge on this critical question by examining the impacts of different levels of developmental reading and writing on students' academic outcomes. The results suggest that the impacts are generally insignificant for students on the margin of needing developmental course work, yet the estimates are negative on students assigned to the lowest level of the developmental sequence. The results therefore support the increasing national push to reform these programs.

The annual number of certificates awarded by community colleges has increased dramatically, but relatively little research has been conducted on the economic benefits of certificates in the labor market. Based on detailed student-level information from matched college transcript and employment data in two states, this article estimates the relationship between earning a certificate and student earnings and employment status after exiting college. Our results indicate that certificates have positive impacts on earnings in both states overall, and in cases where there is no impact on earnings, certificates may nonetheless lead to increased probability of employment. In addition, we find substantial variation in the returns across fields of study and, more importantly, across specific programs within a particular field. Finally, in-depth analysis of the industry of employment before and after college enrollment indicates that many adult learners use certificate programs to switch to a new industry, which may not necessarily boost their earnings, at least in the short run. Our results therefore point to the importance of including multiple measures to evaluate the benefits of a certificate program, rather than merely evaluating its impact on overall earnings.

Many community college students start college in developmental education and leave before enrolling in college-level coursework or making much progress toward a degree; thus, developmental education courses represent the primary education these students receive. Using student-unit record data from two large community college systems linked to wage record data, this is the first study to estimate the labor market returns to developmental education. For two cohorts of students who attended community college in North Carolina and Virginia, we find that earning developmental English credits led to an increase in earnings due to an increased likelihood of employment. In contrast, in both states, developmental math credits had negative impacts on earnings, particularly for those assigned to the lowest level of the developmental math sequence.

Policymakers have become increasingly concerned with measuring--and holding colleges accountable for--students' labor market outcomes. In this article we introduce a piecewise growth curve approach to analyzing community college students' labor market outcomes, and we discuss how this approach differs from two popular econometric approaches: Mincerian and individual fixed-effects models. Our results suggest that three assumptions underpinning econometric approaches--that across-student variation is constant across time, that the model specifies a counterfactual that is appropriate for all members of the sample, and that the impacts of a given award are fixed across time--may not be well founded. We then highlight how insights gained from the growth curve approach can be used to strengthen evolving econometric analyses of labor market returns.

To support the long-term success of underprepared students, many community colleges are experimenting with accelerated developmental education models, which allow students to complete remediation and enroll in college-level math and English within a shorter time frame. This study examines three developmental acceleration programs, including two in English and one in math. Overall, students on accelerated pathways were more likely than a set of matched peers to successfully complete the relevant college-level course within 3 years. However, to help maintain strong student performance within subsequent college-level courses, accelerated pathways may need to incorporate rigorous content, systematic faculty development, and targeted student supports.

Using a dataset containing nearly 500,000 courses taken by over 40,000 community and technical college students in Washington State, this study examines the performance gap between online and face-to-face courses and how the size of that gap differs across student subgroups and academic subject areas. While all types of students in the study suffered decrements in performance in online courses, those with the strongest declines were males, younger students, Black students, and students with lower grade point averages. Online performance gaps were also wider in some academic subject areas than others. After controlling for individual and peer effects, the social sciences and the applied professions (e.g., business, law, and nursing) showed the strongest online performance gaps.

Although online learning is rapidly expanding in the community college setting, there is little evidence regarding its effectiveness among community college students. In the current study, the authors used a statewide administrative data set to estimate the effects of taking one's first college-level math or English course online rather than face to face, in terms of both course retention and course performance. Several empirical strategies were used to minimize the effects of student self-selection, including multilevel propensity score. The findings indicate a robust negative impact of online course taking for both subjects. Furthermore, by comparing the results of two matching methods, the authors conclude that within-school matching on the basis of a multilevel model addresses concerns regarding selection issues more effectively than does traditional propensity score matching across schools. (Contains 1 figure, 3 tables, and 13 notes.)

Extensive theoretical literature and qualitative evidence nominate learning communities as a promising strategy to improve persistence and success among at-risk populations, such as students who are academically underprepared for college-level coursework. Yet rigorous quantitative evidence on the impacts of these programs is limited. This paper estimates the causal effects of a first-year STEM learning communities program on both cognitive and noncognitive outcomes at a large public 4-year institution. We use a regression discontinuity design based on the fact that students are assigned to the program if their math SAT score is below a threshold. Our results indicate that program participation increased the academic performance and sense of belonging for students around the cutoff. These results provide compelling evidence that learning communities can support at-risk populations when implemented with a high level of fidelity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the rapid growth in online coursework within higher education, it is important to establish and validate quality standards for these courses. While many online learning quality rubrics do exist, thus far there has been little empirical evidence establishing a clear link between specific course design features and concrete, student-level course outcomes. In the current study, the authors develop an online course design assessment rubric that includes four areas, and explore the impact of each area on student end-of-semester performance in 23 online courses at two community colleges. The results indicate that the quality of interpersonal interaction within a course relates positively and significantly to student grades. Additional analyses based on course observation and interview data suggest that frequent and effective student–instructor interaction creates an online environment that encourages students to commit themselves to the course and perform at a stronger academic level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]