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In this third part of a multi-paper series, we present quantitative image reconstruction results from aerial measurements of eight different surrogate distributed gamma-ray sources on flat terrain. We show that our quantitative imaging methods can accurately reconstruct the expected shapes, and, after appropriate calibration, the absolute activity of the distributed sources. We conduct several studies of imaging performance versus various measurement and reconstruction parameters, including detector altitude and raster pass spacing, data and modeling fidelity, and regularization type and strength. The imaging quality performance is quantified using various quantitative image quality metrics. Our results confirm the utility of point source arrays as surrogates for truly distributed radiological sources, advancing the quantitative capabilities of Scene Data Fusion gamma-ray imaging methods., Comment: 13 pages, 14 figures

The ability to formulate maps of minimum detectable activities (MDAs) that describe the sensitivity of an ad hoc measurement that used one or more freely moving radiation detector systems would be significantly beneficial for the conduct and understanding of many radiological search activities. In a real-time scenario with a free-moving detector system, an MDA map can provide useful feedback to the operator about which areas have not been searched as thoroughly as others, thereby allowing the operator to prioritize future actions. Similarly, such a calculation could be used to inform subsequent navigation decisions of autonomous platforms. Here we describe a near real-time MDA mapping approach that can be applied when searching for point sources using detected events in a spectral region of interest while assuming a constant, unknown background rate. We show the application of this MDA mapping method to a real scenario, a survey of the interior of a small building using a handheld detector system. Repeated measurements with no sources and with Cs-137 sources of different strengths yield results consistent with the estimated thresholds and MDA values; namely, that for background-only measurements no sources are seen above threshold anywhere in the scene, while when sources are present they are detected above the thresholds calculated for their locations., Comment: 12 pages, 9 figures, submitted to IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science

We demonstrate a method for using arrays of point sources that emulate -- when measured from a standoff of at least several meters -- distributed gamma-ray sources, and present results using this method from outdoor aerial measurements of several planar arrays each comprising up to $100$ ${\sim}7$ mCi Cu-64 sealed sources. The method relies on the Poisson deviance to statistically test whether the array source ''looks like'' its continuous analogue to a particular gamma-ray detector given the counts recorded as the detector moves about 3D space. We use this deviance metric to design eight different mock distributed sources, ranging in complexity from a $36\times36$ m uniform square grid of sources to a configuration where regions of higher and zero activity are superimposed on a uniform baseline. We then detail the design, manufacture, and testing of the ${\sim} 7$ mCi Cu-64 sealed sources at the Washington State University research reactor, and their deployment during the aerial measurement campaign. We show the results of two such measurements, in which approximate source shapes and qualitative source intensities can be seen. Operationally, we find that the point-source array technique provides high source placement accuracy and ease of quantifying the true source configuration, scalability to source dimensions of ${\lesssim}100$ m, ease of reconfiguration and removal, and relatively low dose to personnel. Finally, we consider potential improvements and generalizations of the point-source array technique for future measurement campaigns., Comment: 15 pages, 12 figures; submitted to IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science

The ability to map and estimate the activity of radiological source distributions in unknown three-dimensional environments has applications in the prevention and response to radiological accidents or threats as well as the enforcement and verification of international nuclear non-proliferation agreements. Such a capability requires well-characterized detector response functions, accurate time-dependent detector position and orientation data, a digitized representation of the surrounding 3D environment, and appropriate image reconstruction and uncertainty quantification methods. We have previously demonstrated 3D mapping of gamma-ray emitters with free-moving detector systems on a relative intensity scale using a technique called Scene Data Fusion (SDF). Here we characterize the detector response of a multi-element gamma-ray imaging system using experimentally benchmarked Monte Carlo simulations and perform 3D mapping on an absolute intensity scale. We present experimental reconstruction results from hand-carried and airborne measurements with point-like and distributed sources in known configurations, demonstrating quantitative SDF in complex 3D environments., Comment: 20 pages, 5 figures, 4 supplementary figures, published in Scientific Reports

We present an experimental demonstration of Additive Point Source Localization (APSL), a sparse parametric imaging algorithm that reconstructs the 3D positions and activities of multiple gamma-ray point sources. Using a handheld gamma-ray detector array and up to four $8$ ${\mu}$Ci $^{137}$Cs gamma-ray sources, we performed both source-search and source-separation experiments in an indoor laboratory environment. In the majority of the source-search measurements, APSL reconstructed the correct number of sources with position accuracies of ${\sim}20$ cm and activity accuracies (unsigned) of ${\sim}20\%$, given measurement times of two to three minutes and distances of closest approach (to any source) of ${\sim}20$ cm. In source-separation measurements where the detector could be moved freely about the environment, APSL was able to resolve two sources separated by $75$ cm or more given only ${\sim}60$ s of measurement time. In these source-separation measurements, APSL produced larger total activity errors of ${\sim}40\%$, but obtained source separation distances accurate to within $15$ cm. We also compare our APSL results against traditional Maximum Likelihood-Expectation Maximization (ML-EM) reconstructions, and demonstrate improved image accuracy and interpretability using APSL over ML-EM. These results indicate that APSL is capable of accurately reconstructing gamma-ray source positions and activities using measurements from existing detector hardware., Comment: 10 pages, 9 figures. Accepted for publication at IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science