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The South American and West Indian Casque-headed Treefrogs (Hylidae: Hylinae: Lophyohylini) include 85 species. These are notably diverse in morphology (e.g. disparate levels of cranial hyperossification) and life history (e.g. different reproductive modes, chemical defences), have a wide distribution, and occupy habitats from the tropical rainforests to semiarid scrubland. In this paper, we present a phylogenetic analysis of this hylid tribe based on sequence fragments of up to five mitochondrial (12S, 16S, ND1, COI, Cytb) and six nuclear genes (POMC, RAG-1, RHOD, SIAH, TNS3, TYR). We included most of its species (> 96%), in addition to a number of new species. Our results indicate: (i) the paraphyly of Trachycephalus with respect to Aparasphenodon venezolanus; (ii) the nonmonophyly of Aparasphenodon, with Argenteohyla siemersi, Corythomantis galeata and Nyctimantis rugiceps nested within it, and Ap. venezolanus nested within Trachycephalus; (iii) the polyphyly of Corythomantis; (iv) the nonmonophyly of the recognized species groups of Phyllodytes; and (v) a pervasive low support for the deep relationships among the major clades of Lophyohylini, including C. greeningi and the monotypic genera Itapotihyla and Phytotriades. To remedy the nonmonophyly of Aparasphenodon, Corythomantis, and Trachycephalus, we redefined Nyctimantis to include Aparasphenodon (with the exception of Ap. venezolanus, which we transferred to Trachycephalus), Argenteohyla, and C. galeata. Additionally, our results indicate the need for taxonomic work in the following clades: (i) Trachycephalus dibernardoi and Tr. imitatrix; (ii) Tr. atlas, Tr. mambaiensis and Tr. nigromaculatus; and (iii) Phyllodytes. On the basis of our phylogenetic results, we analyzed the evolution of skull hyperossification and reproductive biology, with emphasis on the multiple independent origins of phytotelm breeding, in the context of Anura. We also analyzed the inter-related aspects of chemical defences, venom delivery, phragmotic behaviour, co-ossification, and prevention of evaporative water loss., (© The Willi Hennig Society 2020.)

Aim For many taxa, inaccuracy of species boundaries and distributions hampers inferences about diversity and evolution. This is particularly true in the Neotropics where prevalence of cryptic species has often been demonstrated. The frog genus Adenomera is suspected to harbour many more species than the 16 currently recognized. These small terrestrial species occur in Amazonia, Atlantic Forest ( AF), and in the open formations of the Dry Diagonal ( DD: Chaco, Cerrado and Caatinga). This widespread and taxonomically complex taxon provides a good opportunity to (1) test species boundaries, and (2) investigate historical connectivity between Amazonia and the AF and associated patterns of diversification. Location Tropical South America east of the Andes. Methods We used molecular data (four loci) to estimate phylogenetic relationships among 320 Adenomera samples. These results were integrated with other lines of evidence to propose a conservative species delineation. We subsequently used an extended dataset (seven loci) and investigated ancestral area distributions, dispersal-vicariance events, and the temporal pattern of diversification within Adenomera. Results Our conservative delineation identified 31 Confirmed Candidate Species (four remaining unconfirmed) representing a 94% increase in species richness. The biogeographical analysis suggested an Amazonian origin of Adenomera with as many as three dispersals to the DD and one to the AF during the Miocene. These dispersals were associated with habitat shifts from forest towards open habitats. Main conclusions The DD played a major role in the history of Adenomera in limiting dispersal and favouring diversification of open-habitat lineages. Moreover, a forest bridge during the Miocene Climatic Optimum may have permitted dispersal from Amazonia towards the AF and subsequent diversification. Uncovering species boundaries and distributions might drastically change inferences based on currently perceived distribution patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]