Search

This study was conducted to investigate the Isosporoid protozoan infections in finch types. Fecal samples were collected from marketed domestic Java sparrows (Lonchura oryzivora), colored and white Zebra finch (Taeniopygia guttata), and European goldfinch (Carduelis carduelis) in southern Iran. The coccidial oocysts were recovered and investigated according to the morphological features and the ribosomal gene markers. Additionally, a challenge infection was conducted with 5 × 104 and 5 × 103 sporulated oocysts in four java sparrows to estimate the clinical manifestations. Based on the morphology, the oocysts of Isospora lunaris were identified in all sampled bird types; however, the molecular method revealed the isolates had considerable similarities with some of Isospora and systemic Isospora-like organisms named as Atoxoplasma. Phylogenetic data also constructed an Atoxoplasma/Isospora clade with high sequence identities. High dose of the challenge with the parasite led to severe depression and sudden death, but it did not coincide with remarkable lesions and parasitic invasion in visceral organs. Contrary to molecular results, this feature is consistent with the common Isospora infections in passerines and differs from those described for Atoxoplasma species. Because of the prevalence, possibility of transmission, and clinical consequences, preventive measures are necessary to avoid outbreaks of isosporoid infections among finch type birds.

The present study was conducted to investigate the prevalence and identification of most common parasitic infections of quails and to determine their seasonal variation. One hundred diseased quails (60 quails in summer and 40 quails in winter) were obtained from quail farms in different localities of Assiut and El-menia Governorates and were examined for the presence of ectoparasites, endoparasites, intestinal protozoa, blood protozoa and parasites of other organs (lungs, brain and liver). Results revealed that neither ectoparasites nor macroscopic parasites were observed in the examined quails. Mainly, the encountered parasites were intestinal protozoa (44%), blood protozoa (25%) and parasites of other organs (28%). The overall parasitic infection rate in the examined quails was higher in cold season (57%) than warm season (53%). The intestinal protozoa were identified including Eimeria spp. (30%), Cryptosporidium spp. (19%), Tetratrichomonas galinarum (15%), Cyclospora spp. (4%), Isospora spp. (3%) and Microsporidia spp. (3%). The prevalence rate of intestinal protozoal infection was higher in warm season 46.6% (28 out of 60 examined birds) than cold seasons 40% (16 out of 40 examined birds). The incidence rate of mixed intestinal protozoal infection was higher (24.8%) than the single infection (18.8%). The blood protozoa were reported including Leucocytozoon spp. (9%), Babesiosoma spp. (8%), Aegyptianella spp. (7%), Plasmodium gallinaceum (4%), Haemoproteus spp. (4%), Atoxoplasma spp. (1%) and Ehrlichia spp. (1%). The prevalence of parasitic infection in other organs showed that respiratory tract (trachea and lung) infection with Cryptosporidium spp. (24%), hepatic histomoniasis (3%) and brain toxoplasmosis (7%).

Prevalence and disease caused by isosporoid coccidia in passerine birds are well recognized, but confusion about the life cycles of the parasites has led to taxonomic inconsistencies. In this study, we characterized segments of the chromosomal small and large-subunit ribosomal RNA (rRNA) genes of coccidial parasites from 23 species of passerine birds, as well as heat shock protein 70, apicoplast rRNA, and chromosomal 5.8s rRNA genes from a subgroup of these animals, and we correlated genetic data with morphologic findings for different parasite developmental stages, host phylogeny, and overall taxonomic relations within the phylum Apicomplexa. Our findings indicate that isosporoid coccidia of passerine birds are monophyletic but exhibit substantial diversity, with most avian species having one or several unique parasite lineages that underwent synchronous speciation with their hosts, interrupted by sporadic episodes of lateral transmission across species and families. Molecular analyses support a homoxenous life cycle, with sexual forms occurring chiefly in the intestines and asexual merozoites present systemically. Rarely, extraintestinal sexual stages can occur. The passerine coccidia are genetically most closely related to species of Eimeria rather than Isospora. We suggest that these parasites, whether identified from blood merozoite stages or fecal oocysts, be provisionally grouped as a homogeneous clade of individual species in a single taxon and formally named when reliable criteria allowing reclassification of related genera in the suborder Eimeriina are clarified.

The intracellular hematozoa of vertebrates are apicomplexan parasites with a life cycle consisting of 3 major phases: schizogony (asexual), gametogony (sexual), and sporogony (asexual). Most members have heteroxenous life cycles, wherein gametogony and sporogony occur in an arthropod vector and schizogony occurs in the vertebrate host. Leucocytozoon toddi occurs in Falconiformes and Leucocytozoon ziemanni in Strigiformes. Considered nonpathogenic in adult raptors, Leucocytozoon can cause mortality in nestlings. Haemoproteus is generally considered nonpathogenic in raptors; however, there are recent reports of fatalities in owls. Plasmodium is the true malarial parasite of birds and mammals. One species, Plasmodium relictum, is considered pathogenic for raptors. Atoxoplasma (previously Lankesterella) is an avian coccidian with both blood and intestinal stages. Babesia has been reported in raptors and might cause anemia and blindness in young falcons. In this article, advances in hematozoon diagnos...

One-hundred and eighty yellow wagtails Motacilla flava belonging to 3 subspecies (Motacilla flava feldegg, Motacilla flava flava, Motacilla flava thunbergi) were caught during the spring migration in south Kazakhstan and investigated by microscopic examination of stained blood smears. Haemoproteus anthi, Haemoproteus motacillae, Leucocytozoon fringillinarum, Leucocytozoon majoris, Plasmodium relictum, Plasmodium polare, Atoxoplasma sp., Trypanosoma sp., and microfilariae were identified. The overall prevalence of infection was 47.8%. Prevalences of Haemoproteus spp. (27.2%), Plasmodium spp. (25.0%), Leucocytozoon spp. (8.9%), Atoxoplasma spp. (4.4%), Trypanosoma spp. (1.1%), and microfilariae (0.6%) were recorded. No differences were discernible in parasite fauna or intensities of infection between males and females or between different subspecies. However, prevalence of infection of Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, and Plasmodium spp. was different in different host subspecies. These differences can be explained by differences in geographical location of breeding areas of these birds.

Coccidian parasites are protozoans in the subphylum Apicomplexa , class Sporozoa , which have a characteristic apical complex of organelles in the infective stages that enable the parasites to enter host cells. These intracellular organisms cause a myriad of diseases in avian species by destroying the cells they invade. For the clinician, some of these parasites can present an antemortem diagnostic challenge owing to the variety of bird species and organ systems affected; therefore, instituting an effective treatment regimen can be an additional hurdle. This article reviews the following coccidian parasites of nondomestic avian species: Eimeria, Isospora, Caryospora, Cryptosporidium, Atoxoplasma, Sarcocystis , and Toxoplasma . Life cycles, clinical signs, diagnostic tests, prevention, and treatment are discussed.

The major hemoprotozoa of caged and aviary birds, primarily psittacines and passerines, are reviewed: Plasmodium, Hemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Atoxoplasma, Trypanosoma, Aegyptianella, Babesia , and Akiba . The occurrence, life cycles, species affected, vectors involved, methods of diagnosis of infection, and some suggested treatment and preventative measures are presented.

A hybrid passerine (Serinus canarius xCarduelis cannabina) in poor bodily condition was presented for consultation but died during clinical examination. Examination of the faeces revealed the presence of oocysts that were assigned to those of Isospora serini species. The sexual stages of the parasite were found in the intestinal tract. Also, merozoites of an Atoxoplasma (Syn. Lankesterella)-like parasite were detected in mononuclear cells in cardiac blood. These findings indicate a coccidiosis pattern consistent with atoxoplasmosis.

Birds from three National Parks (Bwindi Impenetrable, Kibale, and Queen Elizabeth) in western Uganda were surveyed during the dry season in July 2003 and investigated for hematozoa by microscopic examination of stained blood films. Of 307 birds examined, representing 68 species of 15 families and four orders, 61.9% were found to be infected with blood parasites. Species of Haemoproteus (15.3% prevalence), Plasmodium (20.5%), Leucocytozoon (40.1%), Trypanosoma (11.4%), Hepatozoon (2.6%), Atoxoplasma (0.3%), and microfilariae (3.9%) were recorded. Except for Haemoproteus spp. infections, the overall prevalence of hematozoa belonging to all genera was significantly higher in this study than was previously reported in Uganda. Thirty-six species of birds were examined for blood parasites for the first time and 112 new host-parasite associations were identified. Eighty-one were at the generic and 31 at the specific level of the hematozoa. Hepatozoon and Atoxoplasma spp. were detected for the first time in Uganda.

In June 1993 an unusual coccidian parasite was identified in lung tissue from a northern cardinal (Cardinalis cardinalis), collected near Tucson, Arizona (USA), which died in respiratory distress. Histologically, there was evidence of severe, generalized interstitial pneumonia, associated with the parasite. Both asexual and sexual stages were seen. Schizonts, gamonts, and sporulated oocysts were seen in lung tissue. The parasite most closely resembled coccidia of the genus Lankesterella. This is the first report of such a coccidian parasite in the alveolar tissue of a cardinal.

Transmural lymphocytic enteritis was diagnosed in thirteen Nashville warblers (Vermivora ruficapilla) during an epornitic with high mortality. In the intestinal lesions, asexual stages of coccidia were present within lymphocytes and asexual and sexual stages of coccidia were present within intestinal villar epithelium. Ultrastructurally, the infiltrating lymphocytes resembled granular ("intraepithelial") lymphocytes, a cell known to be important in the life cycle of some avian coccidia. Gross and histopathologic features of this enteritis resemble intestinal changes described for Isospora/Atoxoplasma spp. in other passeriformes and lymphoproliferative disease in gold-finches.

Introduced avian diseases pose a significant threat to forest birds on isolated island archipelagos, especially where most passerines are endemic and many groups of blood-sucking arthropods are either absent or only recently introduced. We conducted a blood parasite survey of forest birds from the main islands of American Samoa to obtain baseline information about the identity, distribution and prevalence of hematozoan parasites in this island group. We examined Giemsa-stained blood smears from 857 individual birds representing 20 species on Tutuila, Ofu, Olosega, and Ta'u islands. Four hematozoan parasites were identified ? Plasmodium circumflexum (1%, 12/857), Trypanosoma avium (4%,32/857), microfilaria (9%, 76/857), and an Atoxoplasma sp. {

Extract Juvenile hihi or stitchbirds (Notiomystis cincta) and saddlebacks (Philestumus carunculatus) are particularly prone to systemic protozoal infections when kept in high density populations. Granu-lomatous lesions in the intestine, liver and spleen are associated with proliferating intracellular schizonts. Affected birds become anorexic and lose weight or die suddenly without clinical signs. The protozoan in hihi appears most likely to be Atoxoplasma spp whereas that in saddlebacks is more like Plasmodium spp.

A total of 641 birds representing 135 species of 25 families from Noel Kempff Mercado National Park in west-central Bolivia was examined for hematozoa; only 33 (5.1%) harbored blood parasites. Microfilariae were the most commonly encountered hematozoans, followed, in numerical sequence, by species of Haemoproteus and Plasmodium; Trypanosoma, Atoxoplasma, and Hepatozoon were seen infrequently. The survey included 13 new host-parasite records, and 58 species of birds were examined for blood parasites for the first time; 43 were parasite-free. The low prevalence of parasitism recorded in this survey is compared to other areas in the Neotropical region and to prevalence of blood parasites in the avifauna of other major land masses.

Summary A survey of the literature published between 1890–1978 on the avian haematozoa of Western Europe has shown that 15 000 birds representing 225 species, 132 genera and 44 families were examined. 4356 birds were infected with one or more parasites of the genera Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, Trypanosoma, Toxoplasma, Atoxoplasma (Lankesterella), Hepatozoon and Babesia. An annotated host-parasite check-list is presented which shows the regional distribution of the parasites recorded for each species of bird. Tables are given indicating the total numbers of birds for each species examined, those infected with each parasite genus and the overall totals for individual countries. These are discussed in relation to regional differences in numbers of birds examined and prevalence of individual parasite groups. Brief mention is made of the relationship between trans-Saharan migrants and their parasites.

During 1966–69 mortality attributed to Lankesterella infections occurred among evening grosbeaks (Hesperiphona vespertina) in Algonquin Park, Ontario. Peak mortality was recorded between mid-June and mid-July in all four years, being highest in 1967. The parasite was subsequently discovered in wild rose-breasted grosbeaks (Pheucticus ludovicianus) and was artificially transmitted to other passerines (though not to a duck) by inoculating infected tissues. Mites from two infected grosbeaks failed to initiate infections when fed to uninfected birds, Isospora oocysts from the feces of grosbeaks were not infective to canaries. The ultrastructure of the parasite in grosbeaks is similar to other eimeriid coccidia. The generic nature of this parasite is discussed in light of recent reports that the species of Lankesterella (= Atoxoplasma) in house sparrows might really be referable to Isospora.

SYNOPSIS Coccidia-free and mite-free domestic canaries Serinus canarius given sporulated Isospora oocysts of canary origin and autopsied at intervals thereafter had numerous organisms in cells of the macrophage system structurally similar to organisms called Atoxoplasma. Judging from the sequence of intensity of infection, the mucosa of the upper intestine was parasitized first and the organisms spread from there down the intestine and to the internal organs. The prepatent period of 10 days for the Isospora infection could be started in one bird by oocyst administration and completed by transfer of infected liver cells from this bird to a 2nd bird. Isospara oocysts from sparrows were not infective for a canary.

Toxoplasma-like avian parasites inhabiting mononuclear phagocytes have been called Haemogregarina, Toxoplasma. avian Toxoplasma, Atoxoplasma, and Lankesterella by various authors. My attempts to transmit the parasites by bloodsucking mites or by transfer of blood and tissues of infected sparrows and canaries were unsuccessful. However, it was noted that the infection was exacerbated under conditions that favored transmission of coccidiosis: crowding and lack of cleanliness. Oral inoculation of sporulated oocysts of Isospora resulted in death from overwhelming macrophage infection with Toxoplasma-like organisms. Experiments using sparrows and canaries showed that the Isospora species involved was not cross infectious. Further investigations using canaries demonstrated that after oral oocyst inoculation, infection of macrophages spread from the submucosa of the duodenum to the liver. spleen, and lungs. After several generations in the internal organs, asexual multiplication, occured in the intestinal epithelium of the small intestinc. Fecal oocysts first appeared at the end of 9–10 days. Oocysts continued to be passed in the feces for months after infection. This chronicity may be explained by the relatively long life of the macrophages that serve as host cells for the asexual stages as compared to the intestinal epithelium which is the cell type parasitized by conventional coccidia.

SYNOPSIS. Large numbers of birds, until recently, were brought into the United States each year. Countries of origin were varied, and included those of Australasia, Africa, South America, and the Caribbean Islands, as well as other places. With them of course come their parasites, some of which may be potential pathogens to domestic avifauna. In part for this reason, a survey was undertaken of blood parasites of birds from pet shops and importers. So far a total of 1234 birds belonging to 186 species has been examined. Several new species and subspecies of avian Plasmodium have been found in the course of this study, including P. octamerium Manwell, 1968 in a Pintail Whydah, Vidua macoura, from Africa; P. paranucleophilum Manwell & Sessler, 1971 in a South American tanager, Tachyphonus sp.; and P. nucleophilum toucani Manwell & Sessler 1971 in a Swainson's Toucan, Ramphastos s. swainsonii. Plasmodium huffi Muniz, Soares & Battista is undoubtedly a synonym pro parte for the last. Plasmodium tenue Laveran & Marullaz, long thought to be a synonym of Plasmodium vaughani Novy & MacNeal, was rediscovered and found to be a valid species. Plasmodium nucleophilum, infrequently seen in the New World, occurred in many Asian and African birds, and especially in starlings. Infections with other species of Plasmodium were common. Haemoproteus was the commonest blood parasite; Leucocytozoon was very rare as was Atoxoplasma (Lankesterella). The 2 families of birds best represented were the Fringillidae and the Psittacidae, but no blood parasites were seen in the latter. It is clear that imported birds are often infected with blood protozoa, some of which are unknown from native birds.

Blood smears were examined from 3,715 birds from four areas in the Republic of Panama. Hematozoa were present in at least 142 (50%) of the 281 species examined. An overall prevalence of 18% of the individual birds was noted: Haemoproteus 9%, Plasmodium 5%, Leucocytozoon less than 1%, Trypanosoma 2%, Atoxoplasma/Lankesterella less than 1% and microfilariae 3%. Prevalence in each of the four study areas varied from 13% to 28%. Distribution is analyzed by orders, families and individual species of Plasmodium are tabulated. New host records from 170 species of birds are recorded.

One hundred five spotted owls (Strix Occidentalis) from seven populations and three subspecies were examined for hematozoa. Hacmoproteus noctuae, H. syrnii, Leucocyto-zoon ziemanni, Trypanosoma avium, Atoxoplasma sp. and unidentified microfilariae were recorded. All northern (S. occidentalis caurina), California (S. occidentalis occidentalis) and Mexican (S. occidentalis lucida) spotted owls were infected with at least one hematozoan; 79% had multiple infections. Twenty-two percent of the owls were infected with as many as four species of parasites. There were significant differences in the prevalence of these species of parasites occurring among the five populations of northern and California spotted owls sampled in California. Haemoproteus noctuae, H. syrnii and Atoxoplasma sp. represented new host records for this host species.

A total of 389 birds of 32 species representing 14 families from Tchad were examined for blood parasites. Eighty-nine (22.9%) harbored infections of Haemoproteus (64%), Plasmodium (12.4%), Trypanosoma (1.1%), Atoxoplasma (= Lankesterella) (5.6%), and microfilaria (28.1%). Species of Leucocytozoon were not observed in the present study. The occurrence of the different genera differed markedly between bird families; members of the Ploceidae comprised 85% of the infected birds.

Infections of Eimeria stiedae in normal and splenectomized rabbits and of Leishmania enriettii in normal rabbits and guinea-pigs and in splenectomized rabbits did not produce dye test antibodies. Guinea-pigs injected with Atoxoplasma sp. and rabbits immunized with cultures of Crithidia fasciculata were found to be negative for dye test antibodies. Mice which had been infected with Trypanosoma cruzi did not show dye test antibodies. All these animals, except one guinea-pig infected with Leishmania enriettii, were negative in the complement-fixation test for toxoplasmosis using the egg antigen. These findings are discussed in the light of previous reports.

SINCE it was first shown that Toxoplasma infections may occur naturally in some birds (notably pigeons and chickens) there has been considerable speculation on the possible role of wild birds as host reservoirs for human Toxoplasma infections.

SYNOPSIS. The Pekin Robin (Liothrix luteus) is a species of babbler (Timaliidae) native to Southeast Asia. Except for Plasmodium tenue, a malaria parasite of the subgenus Novyella and much like P. vaughani, with which they are very commonly infected, these birds seem remarkably free of blood parasites. Of 152 birds examined, 4 harbored Leucocytozoon; no infections with Haemoproteus, trypanosomes, Atoxoplasma, or microfilariae were observed. Blood inoculation from 50 Pekin Robins into canaries revealed 3 P. relictum infections. Experimental inoculation of Pekin Robins with no evidence of prior malarial infection, with 6 species of Plasmodium, P. cathemerium, P. circumflexum, P. elongatum, P. octamerium, P. paranucleophilum, and P. vaughani, gave negative results; evidently the birds have a very unusual resistance to malaria (other than P. tenue). Their insusceptibility to P. vaughani is additional evidence of the validity of P. tenue as a species.

The apicomplexan protozoan genus Atoxoplasma Garnham, 1950 is resurrected and the family Atoxoplasmatidae n. fam. established for homoxenous blood parasites of birds that develop asexually in both the blood and intestinal cells, and form oocysts that are passed unsporulated in the feces, sporulate on the ground, and then infect new hosts. A list of 19 species of Atoxoplasma is given. Atoxoplasma desseri n. sp. of the evening grosbeak Coccothraustes vespertinus and rose-breasted grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus is named.