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Current evidence suggests that many of the major events in hominin evolution occurred in East Africa. Hence, over the past two decades, there has been intensive work undertaken to understand African palaeoclimate and tectonics in order to put together a coherent picture of how the environment of Africa has varied over the past 10 Myr. A new consensus is emerging that suggests the unusual geology and climate of East Africa created a complex, environmentally very variable setting. This new understanding of East African climate has led to the pulsed climate variability hypothesis that suggests the long-term drying trend in East Africa was punctuated by episodes of short alternating periods of extreme humidity and aridity which may have driven hominin speciation, encephalization and dispersals out of Africa. This hypothesis is unique as it provides a conceptual framework within which other evolutionary theories can be examined: first, at macro-scale comparing phylogenetic gradualism and punctuated equilibrium; second, at a more focused level of human evolution comparing allopatric speciation, aridity hypothesis, turnover pulse hypothesis, variability selection hypothesis, Red Queen hypothesis and sympatric speciation based on sexual selection. It is proposed that each one of these mechanisms may have been acting on hominins during these short periods of climate variability, which then produce a range of different traits that led to the emergence of new species. In the case of Homo erectus (sensu lato), it is not just brain size that changes but life history (shortened inter-birth intervals, delayed development), body size and dimorphism, shoulder morphology to allow thrown projectiles, adaptation to long-distance running, ecological flexibility and social behaviour. The future of evolutionary research should be to create evidence-based meta-narratives, which encompass multiple mechanisms that select for different traits leading ultimately to speciation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Current evidence suggests that all of the major events in hominin evolution have occurred in East Africa. Over the last two decades, there has been intensive work undertaken to understand African palaeoclimate and tectonics in order to put together a coherent picture of how the environment of East Africa has varied in the past. The landscape of East Africa has altered dramatically over the last 10 million years. It has changed from a relatively flat, homogenous region covered with mixed tropical forest, to a varied and heterogeneous environment, with mountains over 4 km high and vegetation ranging from desert to cloud forest. The progressive rifting of East Africa has also generated numerous lake basins, which are highly sensitive to changes in the local precipitation-evaporation regime. There is now evidence that the presence of precession-driven, ephemeral deep-water lakes in East Africa were concurrent with major events in hominin evolution. It seems the unusual geology and climate of East Africa created periods of highly variable local climate, which, it has been suggested could have driven hominin speciation, encephalisation and dispersal out of Africa. One example is the significant hominin speciation and brain expansion event at ∼1.8 Ma that seems to have been coeval with the occurrence of highly variable, extensive, deep-water lakes. This complex, climatically very variable setting inspired first the variability selection hypothesis , which was then the basis for the pulsed climate variability hypothesis . The newer of the two suggests that the long-term drying trend in East Africa was punctuated by episodes of short, alternating periods of extreme humidity and aridity. Both hypotheses, together with other key theories of climate-evolution linkages, are discussed in this paper. Though useful the actual evolution mechanisms, which led to early hominins are still unclear and continue to be debated. However, it is clear that an understanding of East African lakes and their palaeoclimate history is required to understand the context within which humans evolved and eventually left East Africa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Early human evolution is characterised by pulsed speciation and dispersal events that cannot be explained fully by global or continental paleoclimate records. We propose that the collated record of ephemeral East African Rift System (EARS) lakes could be a proxy for the regional paleoclimate conditions experienced by early hominins. Here we show that the presence of these lakes is associated with low levels of dust deposition in both West African and Mediterranean records, but is not associated with long-term global cooling and aridification of East Africa. Hominin expansion and diversification seem to be associated with climate pulses characterized by the precession-forced appearance and disappearance of deep EARS lakes. The most profound period for hominin evolution occurs at about 1.9 Ma; with the highest recorded diversity of hominin species, the appearance of Homo (sensu stricto) and major dispersal events out of East Africa into Eurasia. During this period, ephemeral deep-freshwater lakes appeared along the whole length of the EARS, fundamentally changing the local environment. The relationship between the local environment and hominin brain expansion is less clear. The major step-wise expansion in brain size around 1.9 Ma when Homo appeared was coeval with the occurrence of ephemeral deep lakes. Subsequent incremental increases in brain size are associated with dry periods with few if any lakes. Plio-Pleistocene East African climate pulses as evinced by the paleo-lake records seem, therefore, fundamental to hominin speciation, encephalisation and migration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Owen et al. [Owen, R.B., Potts, R., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Ditchfield, P., 2008, Diatomaceous sediments and environmental change in the Pleistocene Olorgesailie Formation, southern Kenya Rift Valley. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 269, 17–37], Diatomaceous sediments and environmental change in the Pleistocene Olorgesailie Formation, southern Kenya Rift, Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology Palaeoecology, 269, 17–37) argued that diatom assemblage variations in the Olorgesailie Formation indicate considerable environmental instability with both wetter and drier periods, contradicting the proposed period of lake stability and wet climatic conditions between ca. 1.1 and 0.9million years ago as proposed by Trauth et al. [Trauth, M.H., Maslin, M.A., Deino, A., Strecker, M.R., 2005. Late Cenozoic moisture history of East Africa. Science 309, 2051–2053., Trauth, M.H., Maslin, M.A., Deino, A., Bergner, A.G.N., Dühnforth, M., Strecker, M.R., 2007. High- and low-latitude forcing of Plio-Pleistocene East African climate and human evolution. Journal of Human Evolution 53, 475–486]. Contrary to the interpretation of our work by Owen et al. [Owen, R.B., Potts, R., Behrensmeyer, A.K., Ditchfield, P., 2008, we never said that the proposed periods of large lakes were characterized by stable conditions. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The Pliocene–Pleistocene Transition (PPT), from around 3.2 to 2.5 million years ago (Ma), represented a major shift in the climate system and was characterized by a gradual cooling trend and the appearance of large continental ice sheets over northern Eurasia and North America. Paleo evidence indicates that the PPT was accompanied and possibly caused by a decrease in atmospheric CO 2 , but the temporal resolution of CO 2 reconstructions is low for this period of time and uncertainties remain large. Therefore, instead of applying existent CO 2 reconstructions we solved an ‘inverse’ problem by finding a schematic CO 2 concentration scenario that allows us to simulate the temporal evolution of key climate characteristics in agreement with paleoclimate records. To this end, we performed an ensemble of transient simulations with an Earth system model of intermediate complexity from which we derived a best guess transient CO 2 scenario for the interval from 3.2 to 2.4 Ma that gives the best fit between the simulated and reconstructed benthic δ 18 O and global sea surface temperature evolution. Our data-constrained CO 2 scenarios are consistent with recent CO 2 reconstructions and suggest a gradual CO 2 decline from 375–425 to 275–300 ppm, between 3.2 and 2.4 Ma. In addition to a gradual decline, the best fit to paleoclimate data requires the existence of pronounced CO 2 variability coherent with the 41-kyr (1 kyr = 1000 years) obliquity cycle. In our simulations the long-term CO 2 decline is accompanied by a relatively abrupt intensification of Northern Hemisphere glaciation at around 2.7 Ma. This is the result of a threshold behaviour of the ice sheets response to gradual CO 2 decrease and orbital forcing. The simulated Northern Hemisphere ice sheets during the early Pleistocene glacial cycles reach a maximum volume equivalent to a sea level drop of about 40 m. Both ice volume and benthic δ 18 O are dominated by 41-kyr cyclicity. Our simulations suggest that before 2.7 Ma Greenland was ice free during summer insolation maxima and only partly ice covered during periods of minimum summer insolation. A fully glaciated Greenland comparable to its present-day ice volume is modelled only during glacial maxima after 2.7 Ma and more continuously after 2.5 Ma. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]