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The gut microbiota has been known to modulate the immune responses in chronic liver diseases. Recent evidence suggests that effects of dietary foods on health care and human diseases are related to both the immune reaction and the microbiome. The gut-microbiome and intestinal immune system play a central role in the control of bacterial translocation-induced liver disease. Dysbiosis, small intestinal bacterial overgrowth, translocation, endotoxemia, and the direct effects of metabolites are the main events in the gut-liver axis, and immune responses act on every pathways of chronic liver disease. Microbiome-derived metabolites or bacteria themselves regulate immune cell functions such as recognition or activation of receptors, the control of gene expression by epigenetic change, activation of immune cells, and the integration of cellular metabolism. Here, we reviewed recent reports about the immunologic role of gut microbiotas in liver disease, highlighting the role of diet in chronic liver disease.

A series of indolocarbazole-pyridine (IP) hybrid foldamers containing chiral residues at multiple different positions were prepared to reveal the matched and mismatched phenomena of local stereocenters on the induction of helical bias. These foldamers adopted stable helical conformations, thus affording well-resolved separate sets of 1H NMR signals for right- (P) and left-handed (M) helices in water saturated organic solvents such as toluene and dichloromethane. The ratios of P- and M-helices were determined by integrating the 1H NMR signals, in combination with the molar circular dichroism (Δe) and optical rotation ([α]D) values. The degree of helical bias was larger in the IP foldamer bearing chiral residues at the termini relative to those at the pyridine side chains, but the preferred helix orientation was opposite to each other. Foldamers 5(SS)t(SSS)py and 6(RR)t(SSS)py with chiral residues at five different positions demonstrated the matched and mismatched phenomena of local stereocenters in 6(RR)t(...

An indolocarbazole–naphthyridine hybrid oligomer capable of adopting a stable helical conformation was prepared, and its folding properties were thoroughly studied in the solid state and in solution. As a result of folding, a hydrophilic cavity was generated inside the helix wherein monosaccharides were able to be encapsulated in the order of glucose (9.6 × 104 M–1) > galactose (1.0 × 104 M–1) ≫ mannose (∼0) in 10% (v/v) DMSO/CH2Cl2.

Advances in high-throughput screening of metabolic stability in liver and gut microbiota are able to identify and quantify small-molecule metabolites (metabolome) in different cellular microenvironments that are closest to their phenotypes. Metagenomics and metabolomics are largely recognized to be the “-omics” disciplines for clinical therapeutic screening. Here, metabolomics activity screening in liver disease (LD) and gut microbiomes has significantly delivered the integration of metabolomics data (i.e., a set of endogenous metabolites) with metabolic pathways in cellular environments that can be tested for biological functions (i.e., phenotypes). A growing literature in LD and gut microbiomes reports the use of metabolites as therapeutic targets or biomarkers. Although growing evidence connects liver fibrosis, cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma, the genetic and metabolic factors are still mainly unknown. Herein, we reviewed proof-of-concept mechanisms for metabolomics-based LD and gut microbiotas’ role from several studies (nuclear magnetic resonance, gas/lipid chromatography, spectroscopy coupled with mass spectrometry, and capillary electrophoresis). A deeper understanding of these axes is a prerequisite for optimizing therapeutic strategies to improve liver health.

Synthetic chloride transporters containing two urea groups linked through a diazobenzene spacer have been prepared and the trans-to-cis isomerization by light stimulation results in dramatic changes in the chloride transport activities across lipid and cell membranes.

Synthetic molecules which selectively transport sodium or potassium chloride across a lipid membrane have been prepared. The salt carriers consist of two heteroditopic binding sites, an anion-binding cavity with three hydrogen bond donors and an azacrown ether for binding an alkali metal cation. The association constants between the carriers and chloride ion have been enhanced by 1 order of the magnitude in the presence of sodium or potassium ion in 10% (v/v) CD3OH/CD3CN, due to the formation of a contact ion-pair between the bound cation and chloride as demonstrated by the single-crystal X-ray structure of a sodium chloride complex. A series of transport experiments have demonstrated that the synthetic molecule functions as a mobile carrier of transporting salts via M(+)/Cl(-) symport. Among alkali metal chlorides, the carrier with an 18-azacrown-6 exhibits a strong selectivity toward potassium chloride, while the carrier with a 15-azacrown-5 displays a moderate selectivity for sodium chloride.