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For decades, Cannabis sativa had been illegal to sell or consume around the world, including in the United States. However, in light of the recent 2018 Farm Bill and the legalization of hemp across the US, various cannabis preparations have flooded the market, making it essential to be able to quantitate the levels of the different acidic and neutral cannabinoids in C. sativa and to have a complete cannabinoid profile of the different chemovars of the cannabis plant. A GC-FID method was developed and validated for the analysis of 20 acidic and neutral cannabinoids as trimethylsilyl (TMS) derivatives. The analyzed cannabinoids include cannabidivarinic acid (CBDVA), cannabidiolic acid (CBDA), cannabinolic acid (CBNA), cannabielsoic acid (CBEA), cannabicyclolic acid (CBLA), cannabichromenic acid (CBCA), trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarinic acid (Δ9-THCVA), trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (Δ9-THCAA), cannabigerolic acid (CBGA), cannabidiol (CBD), cannabicyclol (CBL), cannabidivarin (CBDV), trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabivarin (THCV), cannabichromene (CBC), trans-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabigerol (CBG), cannabinol (CBN), cannabicitran (CBT), and cannabielsoin (CBE). The method limit of detection (LOD) was as low as 0.1 µg/mL, while the limit of quantitation ranged from 0.25 µg/mL to 0.5 µg/mL. The precision (%RSD) was

Lotus corniculatus L. (Fabaceae) is widely grown in Egypt. It has a great history of folkloric medicinal uses. All fractions of aerial parts of L. corniculatus L. showed significant antioxidant and...

Cannabidiol (CBD) is a biologically active, non-psychotropic component of Cannabis sativa whose popularity has grown exponentially in recent years. Besides a wealth of potential health benefits, ingestion of CBD poses risks for a number of side effects, of which hepatotoxicity and CBD/herb-drug interactions are of particular concern. Here, we investigated the interaction potential between the cannabidiol-rich cannabis extract (CRCE) and methylsulfonylmethane (MSM), a popular dietary supplement, in the mouse model. For this purpose, 8-week-old male C57BL6/J mice received MSM-containing water (80 mg/100 mL) ad libitum for 17 days. During the last three days of treatment, mice received three doses of CRCE administered in sesame oil via oral gavage (123 mg/kg/day). Administration of MSM alone did not result in any evidence of liver toxicity and did not induce expression of mouse cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes. Administration of CRCE did produce significant (p &lt, 0.05) increases in Cyp1a2, Cyp2b10, Cyp2c29, Cyp3a4, Cyp3a11, Cyp2c65, and Cyp2c66 messenger RNA, however, this effect was not amplified by MSM/CRCE co-treatment. Similarly, no evidence of liver toxicity was observed in MSM/CRCE dosed mice. In conclusion, short-term MSM/CRCE co-administration did not demonstrate any evidence of hepatotoxicity in the mouse model.

Herein we report the design and synthesis of a new series of phthalazine derivatives as Topo II inhibitors and DNA intercalators. The synthesized compounds were in vitro evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116 cell lines. Additionally, Topo II inhibitory activity and DNA intercalating affinity were investigated for the most active compounds as a potential mechanism for the anticancer activity. Compounds 15h, 23c, 32a, 32b, and 33 exhibited the highest activities against Topo II with IC50 ranging from 5.44 to 8.90 µM, while compounds 27 and 32a were found to be the most potent DNA binders at IC50 values of 36.02 and 48.30 µM, respectively. Moreover, compound 32a induced apoptosis in HepG-2 cells and arrested the cell cycle at the G2/M phase. Besides, compound 32a showed Topo II poisoning effect at concentrations of 2.5 and 5 μM, and Topo II catalytic inhibitory effect at a concentration of10 μM. In addition, compound 32b showed in vivo a significant tumor growth inhibition effect. Furthermore, molecular docking studies were carried out against DNA-Topo II complex and DNA to investigate the binding patterns of the designed compounds.

New series of [1,2,4]triazolo [4,3-a]quinoxaline and bis([1,2,4]triazolo)[4,3-a:3′,4′-c]quinoxaline derivatives have been designed, synthesized and biologically evaluated for their cytotoxic activities against three tumor cell lines (HePG-2, Hep-2 and Caco-2). Compounds 16e, 21, 25a and 25b exhibited the highest activities against the examined cell lines with IC50 values ranging from 0.29 to 0.90 μM comparable to that of doxorubicin (IC50 ranging from 0.51 to 0.73 μM). The most active members were further evaluated for their topoisomerase II (Topo II) inhibitory activities and DNA intercalating affinities as potential mechanisms for their anti-proliferative activities. Interestingly, the results of Topo II inhibition and DNA binding assays were consistent with that of the cytotoxicity data, where the most potent anti-proliferative derivatives exhibited good Topo II inhibitory activities and DNA binding affinities, comparable to that of doxorubicin. Moreover, the most active compound 25a caused cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase and induced apoptosis in Caco-2 cells. In addition, Furthermore, molecular docking studies were performed for the novel compounds against DNA-Topo II complex to investigate their binding patterns. Based on these studies, it was concluded that DNA binding and/or Topo II inhibition may contribute to the observed cytotoxicity of the synthesized compounds.

The in vitro antidiabetic and antihyperlipidemic activities of an alcoholic extract of Trigonella stellata were evaluated in terms of the activation of PPARα and PPARγ in human hepatoma (HepG2) cells. The extract was investigated phytochemically, aiming at the isolation of the most active compounds to be used as a platform for drug discovery. Three new isoflavans, (3S,4R)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxy)-7-methoxyisoflavan (1), (3R,4S)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxy-7-methoxy-4′-O-β-d-glucopyranosylisoflavan (2), and (2S,3R,4R)-4,2′,4′-trihydroxy-2,7-dimethoxyisoflavan (3), were isolated and characterized along with the five known compounds p-hydroxybenzoic acid (4), 7,4′-dihydroxyflavone (5), dihydromelilotoside (6), quercetin-3,7-O-α-l-dirhamnoside (7), and soyasaponin I (8). The structures of 1–3 were elucidated using various spectroscopic techniques including HRESIMS and 1D and 2D NMR. The absolute stereochemistry of the new isoflavans (1–3) was determined using both experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism a...

A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry single-laboratory validation was performed for the detection and quantification of the 10 major cannabinoids of cannabis, namely, (−)-trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiol, cannabigerol, cannabichromene, tetrahydrocannabivarian, cannabinol, (−)-trans-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabidiolic acid, cannabigerolic acid, and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A, in the root extract of Cannabis sativa. Acetonitrile : methanol (80 : 20, v/v) was used for extraction; d3-cannabidiol and d3- tetrahydrocannabinol were used as the internal standards. All 10 cannabinoids showed a good regression relationship with r 2 > 0.99. The validated method is simple, sensitive, and reproducible and is therefore suitable for the detection and quantification of these cannabinoids in extracts of cannabis roots. To our knowledge, this is the first report for the quantification of cannabinoids in cannabis roots.

Photooxygenation of Δ8 tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ8-THC), Δ9 tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), Δ9 tetrahydrocannabinolic acid (Δ9-THCA) and some derivatives (acetate, tosylate and methyl ether) yielded 24 oxygenated derivatives, 18 of which were new and 6 were previously reported, including allyl alcohols, ethers, quinones, hydroperoxides, and epoxides. Testing these compounds for their modulatory effect on cannabinoid receptors CB1 and CB2 led to the identification of 7 and 21 as CB1 partial agonists with Ki values of 0.043 μM and 0.048 μM, respectively and 23 as a cannabinoid with high binding affinity for CB2 with Ki value of 0.0095 μM, but much less affinity towards CB1 (Ki 0.467 μM). The synthesized compounds showed cytotoxic activity against cancer cell lines (SK-MEL, KB, BT-549, and SK-OV-3) with IC50 values ranging from 4.2 to 8.5 μg/mL. Several of those compounds showed antimicrobial, antimalarial and antileishmanial activities, with compound 14 being the most potent against various pathogens.

Cannabinoids are a group of terpenophenolic compounds in the medicinal plant Cannabis sativa (Cannabaceae family). Cannabigerolic acid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A, cannabidiolic acid, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol, cannabigerol, cannabidiol, cannabichromene, and tetrahydrocannabivarin are major metabolites in the classification of different strains of C. sativa. Degradation or artifact cannabinoids cannabinol, cannabicyclol, and Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol are formed under the influence of heat and light during processing and storage of the plant sample. An ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatographic method coupled with photodiode array and single quadruple mass spectrometry detectors was developed and validated for quantitative determination of 11 cannabinoids in different C. sativa samples. Compounds 1 – 11 were baseline separated with an acetonitrile (with 0.05% formic acid) and water (with 0.05% formic acid) gradient at a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min on a Waters Cortec UPLC C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm I. D., 1.6 µm). The limits of detection and limits of quantitation of the 11 cannabinoids were below 0.2 and 0.5 µg/mL, respectively. The relative standard deviation for the precision test was below 2.4%. A mixture of acetonitrile and methanol (80 : 20, v/v) was proven to be the best solvent system for the sample preparation. The recovery of all analytes was in the range of 97 – 105%. A total of 32 Cannabis samples including hashish, leaves, and flower buds were analyzed.

VEGF/VEGFR2 pathway is the crucial therapeutic target in the treatment of cancer. So that, a new series of quinoxaline-2(1H)-one derivatives were designed and synthesized. The synthesized compounds were tested against three human cancer cell lines (HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116) aiming to evaluate its anti-proliferative activities. Doxorubicin as a universal anticancer drug and sorafenib as a potent VEGFR-2 inhibitor were used as positive controls. The data obtained from biological activity were found highly correlated with that obtained from molecular modeling studies. The most sensitive cell line to the influence of our new derivatives was HCT-116. Compounds 13b, 15, 16e and 17b exert the highest cytotoxic activities against the tested cell lines. Overall, compound 15 was the most active member with IC50 values of 5.30, 2.20, 5.50 µM against HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116, respectively. Compounds 15 and 17b showed better anti-proliferative activities than doxorubicin and sorafenib against the three cancer cell lines. Additionally, compound 16e showed better anti-proliferative activities than doxorubicin and sorafenib against HepG-2 and HCT-116 but exhibited lower activity against MCF-7 cell line. In addition, the most promising members were further evaluated for their inhibitory activities against VEGFR-2. Compounds 15 and 17b potently inhibited VEGFR-2 at lower IC50 values of 1.09 and 1.19 µM, respectively, compared to sorafenib (IC50 = 1.27 µM). Moreover, docking studies were conducted to investigate the binding pattern of the synthesized compounds against the prospective molecular target VEGFR-2.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) and sulfonylurea receptor (SUR) play crucial roles in management of type-2 diabetes mellitus. In this study, a series of novel quinazoline-4(3H)-one-sulfonylurea hybrids were designed and synthesized as dual PPARγ and SUR agonists. The synthesized compounds were evaluated for their in vivo anti-hyperglycemic activities against STZ-induced hyperglycemic rats. Four compounds (19a, 19d, 19f and 25g) demonstrated potent activities with reduction in blood glucose levels of 40.43, 46.42, 41.23 and 42.50 %, respectively. The most active ten compounds were further evaluated in vitro for their PPARγ binding affinities and insulin-secreting abilities. Compounds 19b, 19d, 19f, 25f and 25g exhibited the highest affinities against PPARγ with IC50 values of 0.371, 0.350, 0.369, 0.408 and 0.353µM, respectively. In addition, compounds 19d, 19f, and 25d showed the highest insulin-secreting activities with EC50 values of 0.97, 1.01 and 1.15µM, respectively. Furthermore, molecular docking and pharmacophore generation techniques were carried out to investigate binding patterns and fit values of the designed compounds with PPARγ and SUR, respectively. Also, two QSAR models were generated to explore the structural requirements controlling the different biological activities of the synthesized compounds against PPARγ and SUR.

This study sought to determine whether the cannabis constituent cannabidiol attenuates the development of morphine reward in the conditioned place preference paradigm. Separate groups of mice received either saline or morphine in combination with one of four doses of cannabidiol using three sets of drug/no-drug conditioning trials. After drug-place conditioning, morphine mice displayed robust place preference that was attenuated by 10 mg/kg cannabidiol. Further, when administered alone, this dose of cannabidiol was void of rewarding and aversive properties. The finding that cannabidiol blocks opioid reward suggests that this compound may be useful in addiction treatment settings.

Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk) Sch. Bip. (Asteraceae) is one of the most important medicinal plant species in Egypt. Phytochemical investigation of the methanolic extract of A. fragrantissima led to the isolation of two phenolic compounds Piceol (1) and Veratric acid (2), which are reported for the first time from this plant. In addition, four known flavonoid compounds; Eupatilin 7-methyl ether (3), Chrysosplenol D (4), Cirsiliol (5), and Cirsimaritin (6) were isolated. Structure elucidation was achieved using spectroscopic techniques, including one-dimensional and two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance. Potential cytotoxic activities of the isolated compounds were measured by the sulphorhodamine B assay. Compounds 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6 displayed cytotoxic activity against (MCF7) with IC50 values of 18.2, 15.7, 9.5, 8.33, 3.23, and 3.83 µg/ml, respectively, and against (HepG2) with IC50 values of 19.4, 41.2, 28.3, 20.8, 23.8, and 23.8 µg/ml, respectively. Also there was moderate cytotoxic activity against (A549) with IC50 values of 17.8, 13.6, 3.98, and 10.3 µg/ml for the compounds 1, 2, 4 and 5, respectively, and against (HeLa) with IC50 values of 10.1, 10.4, 4.88, and 3.98 µg/ml for the compounds 3, 4, 5, and 6, respectively. In addition, compounds 4 and 5 showed cytotoxic activity against (PC3) with IC50 values of 3.83 and 3.98 µg/ml, respectively. An in silico study was performed, where cirsiliol (5) and piceol (1) were docked into the active sites of the crystal structures of PI3K and Akt, two protein kinases which are involved in prostate and breast cancer proliferation and survival.

Two new α- Pyrone derivatives (1,2) have been isolated from the endophytic fungus Embellisia sp. The isolated compounds were chemically identified as 5-(3-S-hydroxybutyl)-4-methoxy-6-methyl-2H-pyran-2-one (1) and 4-(4-methoxy-6-methyl-2-oxo-2H-pyran-5-yl)butanoic acid (2). The chemical structures of 1 and 2 were determined based on one and two dimensional NMR spectroscopy and high resolution mass spectrometry. Absolute configuration of compound 1 was determined using modified mosher ester reaction. In vitro antileishmanial, antifungal, antibacterial and antimalarial activities of 1 and 2 were examined but they didn’t show promising activities.

The ethanolic extract of the Red Sea soft coral Sinularia terspilli was subjected to several chromatographic techniques resulting in the isolation of compounds 1–8 including (five sterols 1–5 and three sesquiterpenes 6–8). The isolated compounds have been identified by 1D and 2D NMR spectral analysis and by comparison with literature data. Different biological activities for the isolated compounds and some synthetic derivatives have been carried out. Compounds 4 and 5 exhibited strong cytotoxic activity against human leukemia cell lines HL60 and K562 with IC50 values ranging from 2.0 to 25 nM. This is the first reported isolation of these metabolites from this soft coral species.

Introduction: Decarboxylation is an important step for efficient production of the major active components in cannabis, for example, Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC), cannabidiol (CBD), and cannabigerol (CBG). These cannabinoids do not occur in significant concentrations in cannabis but can be formed by decarboxylation of their corresponding acids, the predominant cannabinoids in the plant. Study of the kinetics of decarboxylation is of importance for phytocannabinoid isolation and dosage formulation for medical use. Efficient analytical methods are essential for simultaneous detection of both neutral and acidic cannabinoids. Methods: C. sativa extracts were used for the studies. Decarboxylation conditions were examined at 80°C, 95°C, 110°C, 130°C, and 145°C for different times up to 60 min in a vacuum oven. An ultra-high performance supercritical fluid chromatography/photodiode array-mass spectrometry (UHPSFC/PDA-MS) method was used for the analysis of acidic and neutral cannabinoids before and after decarboxylation. Results: Decarboxylation at different temperatures displayed an exponential relationship between concentration and time indicating a first-order or pseudo-first-order reaction. The rate constants for Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A (THCA-A) were twice those of the cannabidiolic acid (CBDA) and cannabigerolic acid (CBGA). Decarboxylation of THCA-A was forthright with no side reactions or by-products. Decarboxylation of CBDA and CBGA was not as straightforward due to the unexplained loss of reactants or products. Conclusion: The reported UHPSFC/PDA-MS method provided consistent and sensitive analysis of phytocannabinoids and their decarboxylation products and degradants. The rate of change of acidic cannabinoid concentrations over time allowed for determination of rate constants. Variations of rate constants with temperature yielded values for reaction energy.

Terpenes are the major components of the essential oils present in various Cannabis sativa L. varieties. These compounds are responsible for the distinctive aromas and flavors. Besides the quantification of the cannabinoids, determination of the terpenes in C. sativa strains could be of importance for the plant selection process. At the University of Mississippi, a GC-MS method has been developed and validated for the quantification of terpenes in cannabis plant material, viz., α-pinene, β-pinene, β-myrcene, limonene, terpinolene, linalool, α-terpineol, β-caryophyllene, α-humulene, and caryophyllene oxide. The method was optimized and fully validated according to AOAC (Association of Official Analytical Chemists) guidelines against reference standards of selected terpenes. Samples were prepared by extraction of the plant material with ethyl acetate containing n-tridecane solution (100 µg/mL) as the internal standard. The concentration-response relationship for all analyzed terpenes using the developed method was linear with r2 values > 0.99. The average recoveries for all terpenes in spiked indoor cultivated samples were between 95.0 – 105.7%, with the exception of terpinolene (67 – 70%). The measured repeatability and intermediate precisions (% relative standard deviation) in all varieties ranged from 0.32 to 8.47%. The limit of detection and limit of quantitation for all targeted terpenes were determined to be 0.25 and 0.75 µg/mL, respectively. The proposed method is highly selective, reliable, and accurate and has been applied to the simultaneous determination of these major terpenes in the C. sativa biomass produced by our facility at the University of Mississippi as well as in confiscated marijuana samples.

A series of new VEGFR-2 inhibitors were designed, synthesized and evaluated for their anti-proliferative activities against hepatocellular carcinoma (HepG-2 cell line). Compound 29b (IC50 = 4.33 ± 0.2 µg/ml) was found to be the most potent derivative as it has showed to be more active than doxorubicin (IC50 = 4.50 ± 0.2 µg/ml) and 78% of sorafenib activity (IC50 = 3.40 ± 0.25 µg/ml). The inhibitory profiles against VEGFR-2 were also assessed for the most promising candidates (16b, 20c, 22b, 24a, 24b, 28c, 28e, 29a, 29b and 29c). Compounds 29b, 29c and 29a exhibited potent inhibitory activities towards VEGFR-2 at IC50 values of 3.1 ± 0.04, 3.4 ± 0.05 and 3.7 ± 0.06 µM, respectively, comparing sorafenib (IC50 = 2.4 ± 0.05 µM). Furthermorer, compound 29b induced apoptosis and arrested the cell cycle growth at G2/M phase. Additionally, in vivo antitumor experiments revealed that compounds 29b and 29c have significant tumor growth inhibition. The test of immuno-histochemical expression of activated caspase-3 revealed that there is a time-dependent increase in cleaved caspase-3 protein expression upon exposure of HepG-2 cells to compound 29b. Moreover, the fibroblastic proliferative index test revealed that compound 29b could attenuate liver fibrosis. Docking studies also supported the results concluded from the biological screening via prediction of the possible binding interactions of the target compounds with VEGFR-2 active sites using the crystal structure of VEGFR-2 downloaded from the Protein Data Bank, (PDB ID: 2OH4) using Discovery Studio 2.5 software. Further structural optimization of the most active candidates may serve as a useful strategy for getting new lead compounds in search for powerful and selective antineoplastic agents.

Inhibiting VEGFR-2 has been set up as a therapeutic strategy for treatment of cancer. Thus, nineteen new quinazoline-4(3H)-one derivatives were designed and synthesized. Preliminary cytotoxicity studies of the synthesized compounds were evaluated against three human cancer cell lines (HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116) using MTT assay method. Doxorubicin and sorafenib were used as positive controls. Five compounds were found to have promising cytotoxic activities against all cell lines. Compound 16f, containing a 2-chloro-5-nitrophenyl group, has emerged as the most active member. It was approximately 4.39-, 5.73- and 1.96-fold more active than doxorubicin and 3.88-, 5.59- and 1.84-fold more active than sorafenib against HepG2, HCT-116 and MCF-7 cells, respectively. The most active cytotoxic agents were further evaluated in vitro for their VEGFR-2 inhibitory activities. The results of in vitro VEGFR-2 inhibition were consistent with that of the cytotoxicity data. Molecular docking of these compounds into the kinase domain, moreover, supported the results.

Sixteen novel quinazoline-based derivatives were designed and synthesized via modification of the VEGFR-2 reported inhibitor 7 in order to increase the binding affinity of the designed compounds to the receptor active site. The designed compounds were evaluated for their VEGFR-2 inhibitory effects. Inhibiting VEGFR-2 has been set up as a therapeutic strategy for treatment of cancer. The bioactivity of the new compounds was performed against HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116 cell lines. Doxorubicin and sorafenib were used as positive controls. Compound 18d was observed to have promising cytotoxic activity (IC50 = 3.74 ± 0.14, 5.00 ± 0.20 and 6.77 ± 0.27 µM) in comparison to the reference drug doxorubicin (IC50 = 8.28, 9.63 and 7.67 µM) and sorafenib (IC50 = 7.31, 9.40 and 7.21 µM). The most active compounds were tested for their in vitro VEGFR-2 inhibitory activities. Results of VEGFR-2 inhibition were consistent with that of the cytotoxicity data. Thus, compound 18d showed VEGFR-2 inhibitory activity (IC50 = 0.340 ± 0.04 µM) superior to that of the reference drug, sorafenib (IC50 = 0.588 ± 0.06 µM). Furthermore, docking study was performed in order to understand the binding pattern of the new compounds into VEGFR-2 active site. Docking results attributed the potent VEGFR-2 inhibitory effect of the new compounds as they bound to the key amino acids in the active site, Glu883 and Asp1044, as well as their hydrophobic interaction with the receptor hydrophobic pocket. Results of cytotoxic activities, in vitro VEGFR-2 inhibition together with docking study argument the advantages of the synthesized analogues as promising anti-angiogenic agents.

Cannabinoids are increasingly being used in the treatment of chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) because of their action on the cannabinoid receptors, CB1 and CB2. The currently marketed capsule formulations (sesame oil based and crystalline powder) are required to be administered frequently to maintain therapeutic levels, which leads to non-compliance. In the present study, oral controlled release tablet formulations of Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) were prepared using the lipids Precirol® and Compritol®. Release profiles using THC-lipid matrices and/or with the lipids in the external phase (blend) were evaluated. The effect of directly compressible diluents lactose mixture (Ludipress®), dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (Emcompress®) and microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel® 102) on tablet characteristics and in vitro drug release was also investigated. Further, in vitro THC release in the presence of a lipase inhibitor, Pluronic® F68, was also studied. A 24 h zero-order THC release profile was obtained with a combination of Precirol® and Compritol® in the compression blend. Addition of Pluronic® F68 did not alter THC release in vitro. These optimized tablets were chemically and physically stable for 3 months, the last time point tested, at 25 °C/60% RH. The overall results demonstrate the feasibility of preparing oral THC tablets for once a day administration which can improve CINV management.

Chemical investigation of the Red Sea soft coral Sarcophyton auritum led to the isolation and structure elucidation of a new ceramide N-((2S,3R,4E,6E)-1,3-dihydroxyhenicosa-4,6-dien-2-yl)tridecanamide (1). Structure elucidation was achieved using spectroscopic techniques, including 1D and 2D NMR and HRMS. The anticonvulsant activity of the isolated ceramide was measured in vivo using the pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-induced seizure model, where it successfully antagonized the lethality of pentylenetetrazole in mice. In addition, the isolated ceramide showed good anxiolytic activity when used in the light–dark transition box and the elevated plus maze compared to diazepam. The molecular modeling studies for the antiepileptic and antianxiety mechanism of the isolated ceramide suggested a CNS depressing activity possibly through GABA and serotonin receptors modulation. The pharmacological activity of the ceramide involved agonistic activity on GABA-A receptors but not 5HT3 receptors.

Inhibiting VEGFR-2 has been set up as a therapeutic strategy for treatment of cancer. Accordingly, new quinazoline-based derivatives having the structural features of VEGFR-2 inhibitors were designed and synthesized. Anti-proliferative activities were evaluated against three human cancer cell lines (HepG-2, MCF-7 and HCT-116) using MTT assay method. Doxorubicin and sorafenib were used as positive controls. Compounds 26b, 29a, 29b and 30 showed excellent anti-cancer activities against all cell lines. Moreover, compound 31 was the most active with IC 50 values of 3.97 ± 0.2, 4.83 ± 0.2 and 4.58 ± 0.3 µM, respectively. The most active cytotoxic agents were further evaluated in vitro for their VEGFR-2 inhibitory activities, compound 31 showed a high activity against VEGFR-2 with an IC50 value of 2.5 ± 0.04 µM, almost equal to that of sorafenib (IC50 = 2.4 ± 0.05 µM). Further studies revealed the ability of this promising quinazoline derivative 31 to induce apoptosis and arrest cell cycle growth at G2/M phase. In vivo antitumor activities of the synthesized compounds revealed that compounds 30 and 31 possessed significant tumor growth inhibition effect. Molecular docking studies were also performed and finally we can say that VEGFR-2 inhibition confers the reported cytotoxic activities.

Cannabis (Cannabis sativa L.) is an annual herbaceous plant that belongs to the family Cannabaceae. Trans-Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinol (Δ9-THC) and cannabidiol (CBD) are the two major phytocannabinoids accounting for over 40% of the cannabis plant extracts, depending on the variety. At the University of Mississippi, different strains of C. sativa, with different concentration ratios of CBD and Δ9-THC, have been tissue cultured via micropropagation and cultivated. A GC-FID method has been developed and validated for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of acid and neutral cannabinoids in C. sativa extracts. The method involves trimethyl silyl derivatization of the extracts. These cannabinoids include tetrahydrocannabivarian, CBD, cannabichromene, trans-Δ8-tetrahydrocannabinol, Δ9-THC, cannabigerol, cannabinol, cannabidiolic acid, cannabigerolic acid, and Δ9-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid-A. The concentration-response relationship of the method indicated a linear relationship between the concentration and peak area ratio with R2 > 0.999 for all 10 cannabinoids. The precision and accuracy of the method were found to be ≤ 15% and ± 5%, respectively. The limit of detection range was 0.11 – 0.19 µg/mL, and the limit of quantitation was 0.34 – 0.56 µg/mL for all 10 cannabinoids. The developed method is simple, sensitive, reproducible, and suitable for the detection and quantitation of acidic and neutral cannabinoids in different extracts of cannabis varieties. The method was applied to the analysis of these cannabinoids in different parts of the micropropagated cannabis plants (buds, leaves, roots, and stems).

Extracts of Egyptian marine organisms from the Red Sea were screened for their anticancer activity using sulforhodamine B assay. The extract of the Red Sea sponge Spheciospongia vagabunda possessed promising anticancer activity against HepG2 (liver cancer cell line) and MCF-7 (breast cancer cell line). Isolation of three new ceramides: N-[(2S,3S,4R)-1,3,4-trihydroxytetradecan-2-yl] tridecanamide (1), (R)-2′-hydroxy-N-[(2S,3S,4R)-1,3,4-trihydroxypentacosan-2-yl] octadecanamide (2) and (R,Z)-2′-hydroxy-N-[(2S,3S,4R)-1,3,4-trihydroxytricosan-2-yl) nonadec-10-enamide (3) was accomplished via bioassay-guided fractionation. Structure elucidation was achieved using spectroscopic techniques, including 1D and 2D NMR and HRMS. Compounds 2 and 3 displayed high potential cytotoxicity against HepG2 (IC50 24.7 and 21.3 µM, respectively) and MCF-7 (IC50 26.8 and 29.8 µM, respectively), compared with doxorubicin as control drug.

Seven new naturally occurring hydroxylated cannabinoids (1-7), along with the known cannabiripsol (8), have been isolated from the aerial parts of high-potency Cannabis sativa. The structures of the new compounds were determined by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic analysis, GC-MS, and HRESIMS as 8α-hydroxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (1), 8β-hydroxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (2), 10α-hydroxy-Δ(8)-tetrahydrocannabinol (3), 10β-hydroxy-Δ(8)-tetrahydrocannabinol (4), 10α-hydroxy-Δ(9,11)-hexahydrocannabinol (5), 9β,10β-epoxyhexahydrocannabinol (6), and 11-acetoxy-Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinolic acid A (7). The binding affinity of isolated compounds 1-8, Δ(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol, and Δ(8)-tetrahydrocannabinol toward CB1 and CB2 receptors as well as their behavioral effects in a mouse tetrad assay were studied. The results indicated that compound 3, with the highest affinity to the CB1 receptors, exerted the most potent cannabimimetic-like actions in the tetrad assay, while compound 4 showed partial cannabimimetic actions. Compound 2, on the other hand, displayed a dose-dependent hypolocomotive effect only.

Alcea rosea L. is widely cultivated in gardens of Egypt as an ornamental plant and it has a great history of folkloric medicinal uses. In the present work, phytochemical investigation of the alcoholic extract of the flowers of A. rosea L. led to the isolation of six flavonoids (1–6). Dihydrokaempferol-4′-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (1), dihydrokaempferol (2), kaempferol-3-O-[6″-(E-coumaroyl)]-β-d-glucopyranoside (3), kaempferol-3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside (4), Apigenin (5) and kaempferol-3-O-α-l-rhamnopyranosyl-(1′″→6″)-β-d-glucopyranoside (6). Four of the isolated compounds were evaluated for their antioxidant, immunostimulant and cytotoxic activities against HepG-2 cell line. Compound (3) showed potent cytotoxic activity against HepG-2 cell line with high selectivity towards hepatocellular carcinoma in vitro (with IC50 = 3.8 μg/mL). Compounds 1 and 2 exhibited significant antioxidant activity and compound 4 showed a significant immune stimulant activity. Compound 1 is isolated for the first time from genus Alcea and this is the first report for its biological investigation.

The aim of the present study was to determine if Cuscuta pedicellata extract has an effect on body weight and serum lipid profile in the HFD-fed rats’ animal model. The ethanol extract of C. pedicellata exhibited a significant reduction in body weight and serum lipid profile in this model. The n-hexane/EtOAc (1:1), EtOAc and MeOH/EtOAc (1:1) fractions were also active, while the MeOH fraction showed no beneficial effect. Bioactivity-guided fractionation leads to the isolation of ten pure compounds: naringenin (1), kaempferol (2), aromadenderin (3), quercitin (4), 3,5,7,3′,5′-pentahydroxy flavanone (5), naringenin -7-O-β-d-glucoside (6), aromadenderin -7-O-β-d-glucoside (7), Taxifolin -7-O-β-d-glucoside (8), kaempferol -3-O-β-d-glucoside (astragalin), (9) and quercitin -3-O-β-d-glucoside (isoquercitrin) (10). This is the first report of compounds 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, and 8 in Cuscuta pedicellata. Compound 1 > compound 8 > compound 3 > compound 7 > compound 4 > compound 2 are responsible for the potency of the ethanol extract, while compound 6 was only effective in reducing the total cholesterol serum levels but not effective in reducing the level of triglycerides or the body weight. Our data confirmed the anti-obesity effect of C. pedicellata reported by the Egyptian population and identified the compounds responsible for this activity.

Bioactivity-guided fractionation of a 90 % methanolic extract of Solanum elaeagnifolium led to the isolation of a new compound named, 2R,3R-5,7,4′-trihydroxy-dihydroflavon-3-O-α-d-glucopyranosyl-6′′-O-β-d-glucopyranoside-6′′′-p-hydroxy benzoate (1), along with kaempferol-3-(6′-coumaroyl glucoside) (2) for the first time from this plant. Potential anticancer activities of the isolated compounds were measured by the sulphorhodamine B assay. Compounds 1 and 2 displayed cytotoxic activity against breast cancer cell lines (MCF7) with IC50 values of 5.2 and 6.9 µM, respectively, and against liver cancer cell lines (HPG2) with IC50 values of 34.9 and 32.6 µM, respectively.

Chemical investigation of the Red Sea soft coral Sarcophyton auritum led to the isolation and structure elucidation of two new diterpene cembranoids; 2- epi -sarcophine ( 2 ) and (1 R ,2 E ,4 S ,6 E ,8 R ,11 R ,12 R )-2,6-cembradiene-4,8,11,12-tetrol ( 4 ), as well as two known diterpene cembranoids, reported for the first time from this species, namely sarcophine ( 1 ) and (+)-7α,8β-dihydroxydeepoxysarcophine ( 3 ). Structure elucidation was achieved using spectroscopic techniques, including 1D and 2D NMR and HRMS. The isolated cembranoids were found to display high cytotoxicity against HepG2 (liver cancer cell line) and MCF-7 (breast cancer cell line).

In our effort to develop potent anti-hyperglycemic agents with potential agonistic activities toward PPARγ and SUR, three novel series of quinoxaline derivatives bearing sulfonylurea or sulfonylthiourea moieties with different linkers were designed and synthesized. Some of the newly synthesized compounds were evaluated in vivo for their anti-hyperglycemic activities in STZ-induced hyperglycemic rats. Compounds 15a, 15e, 19b and 24a exhibited the highest anti-hyperglycemic activities with % reduction in blood glucose level of (50.58, 43.84, 45.10 and 49.62, respectively). Additionally, eight compounds revealed potent anti-hyperglycemic activities were further evaluated in vitro for their PPARγ binding affinity and insulin-secreting ability as potential mechanisms for anti-hyperglycemic activity. Four compounds (15a, 15b, 15d and 15e) significantly bound to PPARγ with IC50 values of 0.482, 0.491, 0.350 and 0.369μM, respectively. Moreover, Compounds 15a and 15b have demonstrated induction of insulin-secretion with EC50 values of 0.92 and 0.98μM, respectively. Furthermore, molecular docking and pharmacophore generation techniques were carried out to investigate binding patterns and fit values of the designed compounds with PPARγ and SUR, respectively.

The goal of this study was to investigate the potential for a cannabidiol-rich cannabis extract (CRCE) to interact with the most common over-the-counter drug and the major known cause of drug-induced liver injury&ndash, acetaminophen (APAP)&ndash, in aged female CD-1 mice. Gavaging mice with 116 mg/kg of cannabidiol (CBD) [mouse equivalent dose (MED) of 10 mg/kg of CBD] in CRCE delivered with sesame oil for three consecutive days followed by intraperitoneally (i.p.) acetaminophen (APAP) administration (400 mg/kg) on day 4 resulted in overt toxicity with 37.5% mortality. No mortality was observed in mice treated with 290 mg/kg of CBD+APAP (MED of 25 mg/kg of CBD) or APAP alone. Following CRCE/APAP co-administration, microscopic examination revealed a sinusoidal obstruction syndrome-like liver injury&ndash, the severity of which correlated with the degree of alterations in physiological and clinical biochemistry end points. Mechanistically, glutathione depletion and oxidative stress were observed between the APAP-only and co-administration groups, but co-administration resulted in much greater activation of c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Strikingly, these effects were not observed in mice gavaged with 290 mg/kg CBD in CRCE followed by APAP administration. These findings highlight the potential for CBD/drug interactions, and reveal an interesting paradoxical effect of CBD/APAP-induced hepatotoxicity.

The overall goal of this project is to enhance ocular delivery of ∆(9)-Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) through the topical route.Solubility, stability and in vitro transcorneal permeability of the relatively hydrophilic hemiglutarate ester derivative, THC-HG, was studied in the presence of surfactants. The solutions were characterized with respect to micelle size, zeta potential and solution viscosity. In vivo studies were carried out in New Zealand albino rabbits. A previously reported promising THC-HG ion-pair formulation was also studied in vivo.Aqueous solubility and stability and in vitro transcorneal permeability of THC-HG was enhanced significantly in the presence of surfactants. THC levels in the ocular tissues (except cornea) were found to be below detection limits from mineral oil, surfactant or emulsion based formulations containing THC. In contrast, micellar and ion pair based THC-HG formulations produced significantly higher total THC concentrations in the anterior ocular chamber.In this study, although delivery of THC to the anterior chamber ocular tissues could be significantly increased through the prodrug and formulation approaches tested, further studies are needed to increase penetration to the back-of-the eye.

Sativex, a cannabinoid extract with a 1 : 1 ratio of tetrahydocannabinol and cannabidiol, has been shown to alleviate neuropathic pain associated with chemotherapy. This research examined whether tetrahydocannabinol or cannabidiol alone could attenuate or prevent cisplatin-induced tactile allodynia. In experiment 1, mice (C57BL/6) received eight administrations of 2.3 mg/kg cisplatin or saline solution IP every other day to induce tactile allodynia. Mice were then administered vehicle, 100 mg/kg gabapentin, 2 mg/kg tetrahydocannabinol, or 2 mg/kg cannabidiol IP and tested 60 min later on an electronic Von Frey. In experiment 2, prevention studies, cannabidiol (0.0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg) or tetrahydocannabinol (0.0, 0.5, 1.0, and 2.0 mg/kg) was given IP 30 min prior to cisplatin administration (2.3 or 1.0 mg/kg) utilizing a six-dose alternate day protocol. In both studies, tactile responses to the hind paws were quantified in g of force using an electronic Von Frey prior to and after the cisplatin administration protocol. Cisplatin produced a reduction in g of force indicative of neuropathy that was attenuated by gabapentin, tetrahydocannabinol, and cannabidiol but not prevented by either cannabinoid. These data demonstrate that each of the major constituents of Sativex alone can achieve analgesic effects against cisplatin neuropathy.

Dendrobium nobile is one of the fundamental herbs in traditional Chinese medicine. Sesquiterpene alkaloids are the main active components in this plant. Due to weak ultraviolet absorption and low content in D. nobile, these sesquiterpene alkaloids have not been extensively studied using chromatographic methods. Herein, tandem mass spectrometry combined with liquid chromatography separation provides a tool for the identification and characterization of the alkaloids from D. nobile. A total of nine sesquiterpene alkaloids were characterized by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. These alkaloids can be classified into two subgroups that are represented by dendrobine and nobilonine. Tandem mass spectrometric studies revealed the fragmentation pathways of these two subgroup alkaloids that were used for the identification and characterization of other alkaloids in D. nobile. Characterization of these alkaloids using accurate mass and diagnostic fragments provided a reliable methodology for the analysis of D. nobile by ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. The limit of detection was defined as the signal-to-noise ratio equal to 3 : 1. Limits of detection of dendrobine and nobilonine were less than 30 ng/mL. The developed method was applied for the analysis of various Dendrobium species and related dietary supplements. Alkaloids were identified from D. nobile, but not detected from commercial samples including 13 other Dendrobium species and the 7 dietary supplements.

An efficient in vitro propagation protocol for rapidly producing Cannabis sativa plantlets from young leaf tissue was developed. Using gas chromatography-flame ionization detection (GC-FID), high THC yielding elite female clone of a drug-type CANNABIS variety (MX) was screened and its vegetatively propagated clones were used for micropropagation. Calli were induced from leaf explant on Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with different concentrations (0.5, 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 µM) of indole- 3-acetic acid (IAA), indole- 3- butyric acid (IBA), naphthalene acetic acid (NAA), and 2,4-dichlorophenoxy-acetic acid (2,4-D) in combination with 1.0 µM of thidiazuron (TDZ) for the production of callus. The optimum callus growth and maintenance was in 0.5 µM NAA plus 1.0 µM TDZ. The two-month-old calli were subcultured to MS media containing different concentrations of cytokinins (BAP, KN, TDZ). The rate of shoot induction and proliferation was highest in 0.5 µM TDZ. Of the various auxins (IAA, IBA, and NAA) tested, regenerated shoots rooted best on half strength MS medium (1/2 - MS) supplemented with 2.5 µM IBA. The rooted plantlets were successfully established in soil and grown to maturity with no gross variations in morphology and cannabinoids content at a survival rate of 95 % in the indoor growroom.

Nine dihydroartemisinin acetal dimers (6-14) with diversely functionalized linker units were synthesized and tested for in vitro antiprotozoal, anticancer and antimicrobial activity. Compounds 6, 7 and 11 [IC(50): 3.0-6.7 nM (D6) and 4.2-5.9 nM (W2)] were appreciably more active than artemisinin (1) [IC(50): 32.9 nM (D6) and 42.5 nM (W2)] against the chloroquine-sensitive (D6) and chloroquine-resistant (W2) strains of the malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum. Compounds 10, 13 and 14 displayed enhanced anticancer activity in a number of cell lines compared to the control drug, doxorubicin. The antifungal activity of 7 and 12 against Cryptococcus neoformans (IC(50): 0.16 and 0.55 microM, respectively) was also higher compared to the control drug, amphotericin B. The antileishmanial and antibacterial activities were marginal. A number of dihydroartemisinin acetal monomers (15-17) and a trimer (18) were isolated as byproducts from the dimer synthesis and were also tested for biological activity.

Inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers were used to evaluate the genetic stability of the micropropagated plants of Cannabis sativa over 30 passages in culture and hardening in soil for 8 months. A total of 15 ISSR primers resulted in 115 distinct and reproducible bands. All the ISSR profiles from micropropagated plants were monomorphic and comparable to mother plants, confirming the genetic stability among clones and mother plants. Chemical analysis of cannabinoids, using gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID), was done to further confirm whether the qualitative and quantitative differences in the major secondary metabolites exist between the mother plant and micropropagated plants. Six major cannabinoids - Delta(9)-THC, THCV, CBD, CBC, CBG, and CBN - were identified and compared with the mother plant. Our results clearly showed a similar cannabinoid profile and insignificant differences in THC content between the two types of plants. These results suggest that the micropropagation protocol developed by us for rapid IN VITRO multiplication is appropriate and applicable for clonal mass propagation of C. SATIVA.

Nine new cannabinoids (1-9) were isolated from a high-potency variety of Cannabis sativa. Their structures were identified as (+/-)-4-acetoxycannabichromene (1), (+/-)-3''-hydroxy-Delta((4'',5''))-cannabichromene (2), (-)-7-hydroxycannabichromane (3), (-)-7R-cannabicoumarononic acid A (4), 5-acetyl-4-hydroxycannabigerol (5), 4-acetoxy-2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentylphenol (6), 8-hydroxycannabinol (7), 8-hydroxycannabinolic acid A (8), and 2-geranyl-5-hydroxy-3-n-pentyl-1,4-benzoquinone (9) through 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, GC-MS, and HRESIMS. The known sterol beta-sitosterol-3-O-beta-d-glucopyranosyl-6'-acetate was isolated for the first time from cannabis. Compounds 6 and 7 displayed significant antibacterial and antifungal activities, respectively, while 5 displayed strong antileishmanial activity.

Three new cannabichromanone derivatives were isolated from high potency cannabis, along with the known cannabichromanone. Full spectroscopic data, including the use of electronic circular dichroism and Mosher ester analysis to determine the absolute configuration of these compounds, are reported. All isolates were tested for antimicrobial, antimalarial, antileishmanial, and anti-oxidant activities.

Phytochemical investigation of a high potency variety of Cannabis sativa L. resulted in the isolation of six new metabolites, (+/-)-6,7-trans-epoxycannabigerolic acid ( 2), (+/-)-6,7- CIS-epoxycannabigerolic acid ( 3), (+/-)-6,7- CIS-epoxycannabigerol ( 4), (+/-)-6,7-trans-epoxycannabigerol ( 5), 5'-methyl-4-pentylbiphenyl-2,2',6-triol ( 7), and 7-methoxycannabispirone ( 8), along with seven known compounds namely, cannabigerolic acid ( 1), 5'-methoxycannabigerolic acid ( 6), cannabispirone ( 9), beta-cannabispiranol ( 10), dehydrocannabifuran ( 11), cannflavin B ( 12) and cannabigerol ( 13). The antimicrobial as well as the antileishmanial activities were investigated.

The objectives of the present research investigations were to (i) elucidate the mechanism for the oxidative degradation of Delta(9)-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) in polymer matrix systems prepared by a hot-melt fabrication procedure, and (ii) study the potential for controlling these mechanisms to reduce the degradation of THC in solid dosage formulations. Various factors considered and applied included drug-excipient compatibility, use of antioxidants, cross-linking in polymeric matrices, microenvironment pH, and moisture effect. Instability of THC in polyethylene oxide (PEO)-vitamin E succinate (VES) patches was determined to be due to chemical interaction between the drug and the vitamin as well as with the atmospheric oxygen. Of the different classes and mechanisms of antioxidants studied, quenching of oxygen by reducing agents, namely, ascorbic acid was the most effective in stabilizing THC in PEO-VES matrices. Only 5.8% of the drug degraded in the ascorbic acid-containing patch as compared to the control (31.6%) after 2 months of storage at 40 degrees C. This coupled with the cross-linking extent and adjustment of the pH microenvironment, which seemed to have an impact on the THC degradation, might be effectively utilized towards stabilization of the drug in these polymeric matrices and other pharmaceutical dosage forms. These studies are relevant to the development of a stable transmucosal matrix system for the therapeutic delivery of amorphous THC.

NPC1161 is an 8-aminoquinoline anti-malarial analog, which has a favorable toxicity profile relative to primaquine and other 8-aminoquinolines. High-performance liquid chromatographic method was developed for the determination of NPC1161, primaquine and their metabolites in biological samples in order to facilitate metabolic and pharmacokinetic studies. The method includes extraction of the unchanged drugs and their metabolites from the biological samples. Separation was achieved by reversed-phase chromatography on a C18 column with water–acetonitrile both containing 0.025% trifluoroacetic acid as the mobile phase. Recoveries of NPC1161 and its metabolites were greater than 60% in various biological samples tested. No interference with the components of the biological material was observed. The detector response was linear with concentrations of NPC1161 and its metabolites (desalkyl NPC1161 and carboxy NPC1161) in the ranges from 0.5 to 80.0, 0.4–60.0 and 0.4–70.0 μg mL−1, respectively. A mass spectrometry coupled with electrospray ionization (ESI) interface method is described for the identification of NPC1161 and its metabolites in biological samples. This method involved the use of the [M + H]+ions of NPC1161, C3 analog (internal std. for the assay), desalkyl NPC1161 and carboxy NPC1161 at m/z 434, 406, 349 and 449 in the positive ion mode with extractive ion monitoring (EIM). This method will have an important application in pharmacokinetic studies of NPC1161 and in understanding the mechanism of metabolism of this novel 8-aminoquinoline analog in more detail.

This study describes a novel and simple GC-MS procedure developed for the determination of the concentration of the 8-aminoquinoline antimalarial agent NPC1161 and its carboxy metabolite in plasma and red blood cells. Preliminary pharmacokinetic data were generated for the two enantiomers of NPC1161 in monkeys. NPC1161, the internal standard, and desalkyl metabolite were converted to their mono-heptafluorobutyrates, while the carboxy metabolite underwent an intramolecular cyclization to give a lactam product. The calibration curves were linear ranging from 10 to 2,000 ng mL−1. The developed GC-MS method is sensitive and reproducible for measuring blood level of this antimalarial drug.