• A new dynamic two-layer model, which provides a unified physical basis for vegetated flows with rigid submerged canopies of different densities, is proposed. • Two sets of formulae are derived on the basis of genetic programming to predict flow rates for vegetated flows with sparse and dense canopies. • On the analogy of rough-wall flows, the two formulae illustrate that relative submergence and canopy density are important in predicting the hydraulic resistance in submerged vegetated flows. The depth-averaged velocity is the commonly used engineering quantity in natural rivers, and it needs to be predicted in advance, especially in flood seasons. A model that can provide a unified physical foundation for open channel flows with different canopy densities remains lacking despite ongoing researches. Here, we use the concept of the auxiliary bed to describe the influence of momentum exchange on rigid canopy elements with varying density and submergence. The auxiliary bed divides the vegetated flow into a basal layer and a suspension layer to predict average velocity in each layer separately. In the basal layer, the velocity profile is assumed to be uniform. In the suspension layer, a parameter called "penetration depth" is applied to present the variations in velocity distribution. We also apply a data-driven method, called genetic programming (GP), to derive Chezy-like predictors for average velocity in the suspension layer. Compared to the hydraulic resistance equation for rough-wall flows, the new formulae calculated by the weighted combination method show sound physical meanings. In addition, comparison with other models shows that the new dynamic two-layer model achieves high accuracy in flow rate estimation, especially for vegetated flow with sparse canopies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR] more...