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Objectives: Both environmental and occupational exposure limits are based on the no-observed-adverse-effect level (NOAEL), lowest-observed-adverse-effect level (LOAEL) or benchmark dose (BMD) deriving from epidemiological and experimental studies. The aim of this study is to investigate to what extent the NOAEL values for organic compounds responsible for liver toxicity calculated based on their physicochemical properties could be used for calculating occupational exposure limits., Material and Methods: The distribution coefficients from air to the liver (log K(liver)) were calculated according to the Abraham solvation equation. NOAEL and LOAEL values for early effects in the liver were obtained from the literature data. The descriptors for Abraham's equation were found for 59 compounds, which were divided into 2 groups: "non-reactive" (alcohols, ketones, esters, ethers, aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, amides) and "possibly reactive" (aldehydes, allyl compounds, amines, benzyl halides, halogenated hydrocarbons, acrylates)., Results: The correlation coefficients between log-log K and log NOAEL for non-reactive and reactive compounds amounted to r = -0.8123 and r = -0.8045, respectively, and were statistically significant. It appears that the Abraham equation could be used to predict the NOAEL values for compounds lacking information concerning their liver toxicity., Conclusions: In view of the tendency to limit animal testing procedures, the method proposed in this paper can improve the practice of setting exposure guidelines for the unstudied compounds.

Objective: The aim of this work is to describe the operation principle of the TRA ECETOC model developed using the descriptor system, and the utilization of that model for assessment of inhalation exposures to different organic solvents for selected process categories identifying a given application., Method: Measurement results were available for toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone in workplace atmosphere in Poland. The following process categories have been postulated: (1) Paints and lacquers factory: use in closed, continuous process with occasional controlled exposure; (2) Shoe factory: roller or brush application of glues; (3) Refinery: use in closed process, no likelihood of exposure. The next step was to calculate the workplace concentration at chosen process categories by applying the TRA ECETOC model., Results: The selected categories do not precisely describe the studied applications. Very high concentration values of acetone were measured in the shoe factory, mean 443 ppm. The concentration obtained with the aid of the model is underestimated, ranging from 25.47 to 254.7 ppm, for the case with and without activation of the local exhaust ventilation (LEV), respectively. Estimated concentration at a level corresponding to that of the measured concentration would be possible if the process category involving spraying, e.g., PROC 7 was considered. For toluene and ethyl acetate, the measured concentrations are within the predicted ranges determined with the use of the model when we assume the concentration predicted with active ventilation for the beginning, and the concentration predicted with inactive ventilation for the end of the range., Conclusions: Model TRA ECETOC can be easily used to assess inhalation exposure at workplace. It has numerous advantages, its structure is clear, requires few data, is available free of charge. Selection of appropriate process categories related to the uses identified is guarantee of successful exposure assessment.

A common biological effect of exposure to workplace chemicals is sensory irritation. The ACGIH(R) threshold limit values (TLVs(R)) are developed based on data derived from industrial settings as well as experimental human and animal studies. Considering the limited amount of human data and the tendency to reduce the volume of animal testing, there is a need for an alternative method to assess sensory irritation. Nasal pungency involves transfer of a compound through the mucosa into the receptor area. This environment is inhomogeneous, being partly a hydrophobic lipid-like and hydrophilic aqueous-like area. A general equation has been developed that seems satisfactory for explaining the transfer of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from the gaseous phase to biophases, making it possible to calculate the nasal pungency threshold (NPT). The obtained correlation between log 1/NPT and log TLV for 71 VOCs, which is based exclusively on their irritant properties, indicates that for the compounds that act through a nonreactive mechanism (alcohols, ketones, esters, ethers, aromatic and aliphatic hydrocarbons, amides) the relationship between these values differs from that calculated for compounds that act through a reactive mechanism (aldehydes, allyl compounds, aliphatic amines, benzyl halides, carboxylic acids, acrylates, and mercaptans). The correlation coefficient for nonreactive VOCs is very high (n = 46, r = 0.89), and it appears that the regression equation (log TLV = -0.422 log 1/NPT + 0.309) could be used to predict occupational exposure limits (OELs) for this group of compounds. Regarding reactive VOCs, the correlation coefficient is considerably lower (n = 25, r = 0.32), which implies that some kind of correction for their reactivity would have to be applied to calculate the OEL values.

Background: Based on the Estimation and Assessment of Substance Exposure (EASE) predictive model implemented into the European Union System for the Evaluation of Substances (EUSES 2.1.), the exposure to three chosen organic solvents: toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone was estimated and compared with the results of measurements in workplaces., Material and Methods: Prior to validation, the EASE model was pretested using three exposure scenarios. The scenarios differed in the decision tree of pattern of use. Five substances were chosen for the test: 1,4-dioxane tert-methyl-butyl ether, diethylamine, 1,1,1-trichloroethane and bisphenol A. After testing the EASE model, the next step was the validation by estimating the exposure level and comparing it with the results of measurements in the workplace. We used the results of measurements of toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone concentrations in the work environment of a paint and lacquer factory, a shoe factory and a refinery. Three types of exposure scenarios, adaptable to the description of working conditions were chosen to estimate inhalation exposure., Results: Comparison of calculated exposure to toluene, ethyl acetate and acetone with measurements in workplaces showed that model predictions are comparable with the measurement results. Only for low concentration ranges, the measured concentrations were higher than those predicted., Conclusions: EASE is a clear, consistent system, which can be successfully used as an additional component of inhalation exposure estimation. If the measurement data are available, they should be preferred to values estimated from models. In addition to inhalation exposure estimation, the EASE model makes it possible not only to assess exposure-related risk but also to predict workers' dermal exposure.

Objectives: To compare the usefulness of determining unchanged forms of volatile organic compounds (VOCs), namely toluene (TOL), ethylbenzene (EB) and xylene (XYL), in urine with the effectiveness of the already used biomarkers of occupational exposure., Materials and Methods: Surveys were conducted in two workplaces (paint factory and footwear factory). In total, 65 subjects participated in the study. Air samples were collected using individual samplers during work shift. Urine and blood samples were collected at the end of work shift. Urine samples were analyzed for unchanged compounds and selected metabolites, while blood samples were tested for unchanged compounds. VOCs in blood and urine were determined by solid phase microextraction gas chromatography (SPME-GC-MS)., Results: In the paint factory, the geometric mean (GM) concentrations of VOCs in the air ranged as follows: 0.2-4.7 mg/m(3) for TOL, 0.4-40.9 mg/m(3) for EB and 0.1-122.6 mg/m(3) for XYL. In the footwear factory, the GM concentration of TOL in the air amounted to 105.4 mg/m(3). A significant correlation (p < 0.05) was observed between VOCs in blood, urine and air. The regression analyses performed for paint factory workers showed that TOL-U and TOL-B were better biomarkers of exposure (r = 0.72 and r = 0.81) than benzoic acid (r = 0.12) or o-cresol (r = 0.55)., Conclusion: The findings of the study point out that the concentration of unchanged VOCs in urine can be a reliable biological indicator of low level occupational exposure to these compounds.

Objectives: To investigate elimination of unchanged volatile organic compounds (VOC's) through urine and the use of respective data for occupational exposure assessment, six volunteers were exposed under controlled conditions to toluene (TOL), ethylbenzene (EB), xylene (XYL) and mesitylene (MES) at concentrations ranging from 20 to 200 mg/m(3). The study was to elicit the toxicokinetic data and compare the precision of VOC's exposure assessment based on determining unchanged compounds in blood, urine and their metabolites in urine., Methods: During and after exposure blood and urine samples were analysed by gas chromatography using the headspace and SPME headspace technique, Results: The kinetics of VOC's elimination in urine complied with an open two-compartment model. The (half-time) T (1/2 )values varied from 0.45 to 0.88 h for phase I and from 6.7 to 19.2 h for phase II. The precision of the method for unchanged VOC's was similar to that based on unchanged compounds in blood and better than their main metabolites in urine., Conclusion: The obtained result indicate that determining unchanged VOC's in urine can be used as an exposure test even in the ranges of VOC's in the air that are much lower than the current TWA for occupational exposure.

Biological monitoring plays a significant part in the assessment of occupational exposure to lead. The method basically comprises determinations of blood lead concentration and of one of early toxic-effect biomarkers: the level of either zincprotoporphyrin (ZnPP) in blood or deltaaminolevulinic acid (ALA) in urine. However, biological monitoring is conducted only in 25% of all industrial plants, where the employed technological processes are the source of occupational lead exposure. The project that has been implemented by the Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine, Lódź, Poland and Outpatient Clinic for Occupational Health, Poznań, Poland, since 1997 made it possible to assess the dynamics of lead exposure in one of the largest battery plants in Western Poland. Based on the analysis of blood lead determinations in lead-exposed workers, the authors could trace the effectiveness of the project aimed at reducing lead exposure in the plant. The findings revealed that the preventive measures applied over the years 1997-2005 resulted in a considerably decreased percentage of blood lead concentrations exceeding the relevant BEI (biological exposure index) value of 500 microg/l: from 19% in 1997 to 1% in 2005. Such a high effectiveness of the project can be mostly attributed to a successful cooperation between the occupational physician, in-plant occupational health services, and the employer. They were all actively involved in a wide-range of activities for workers' health protection and workplace health promotion.

Exposure to nephrotoxic substances may cause renal tubular and glomerular dysfunction. The aim of the paper was to evaluate, based on literature reports, whether occupational exposure to organic solvents entails a risk of renal dysfunction. The results of the studies performed over the last twenty years are contradictory. In workers occupationally exposed to organic solvents, tubular, glomerular, or no effects were found. The lack of association between the renal effects and the intensity or duration of exposure was reported in most of the studies. It has been suggested that this can be attributed to an individual susceptibility. Available information points to a possibility of mild renal effects, but not to a serious influence on the kidney function at the current levels of occupational exposure to organic solvents. Biological monitoring of early effects can help identify individuals susceptible to nephrotoxicity of this group of chemicals.

The concept of biological monitoring (BM) has gained the special interest of individual scientists and international organizations. Today, when analytical problems have almost ceased due to new laboratory techniques and quality assurance systems, the methods for interpretation of results have become the most important issue. There are important discrepancies regarding the role of biological monitoring of occupational exposure between Europe and the United States. BM has been an important tool of medical health surveillance in the European countries. In the United States it belongs rather to the field of occupational hygiene. It seems that both the approaches can be accepted. More attention should be paid to the development of the truly health-based biomarkers of exposure based on the dose-effect and dose-response relationships. New areas of application of BM of occupational exposure include determination of DNA and protein adducts, unchanged volatile organic compounds in urine, monitoring of exposure to pesticides, antineoplastic drugs, hard metals, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. In the general environment BM is the most valuable tool for acquiring knowledge of current levels of internal exposure to xenobiotics, identifying the hot spots and developments in trends of exposure. BM can provide policy makers with more accurate information on the control measures undertaken. At present, the main areas include heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants and pesticides. BM of chemical exposure has become increasingly important in the assessment of the health risk in occupational and environmental medicine. Therefore it would be worthwhile to include BM in the curricula for the training of occupational hygienists.

The aim of the study was to assess the current occupational exposure to lead in Poland and to evaluate the competence of laboratories responsible for biological monitoring and analysis of health risks in workers exposed to lead. According to the current data, 26,500 workers are employed in 517 factories, including 1895 persons working under condition of exposure exceeding the Polish MAC level of 0.050 mg/m3. The biological monitoring analysis includes measurements of blood lead (Pb-B). Levels and concentrations of one of the markers of early health effect are carried out only in 22% (112) of plants, covering only 76% (20,300) of all workers. Of the 18 laboratories performing this kind of determinations, only 2 are granted the analytical laboratory accreditation certificate. The obtained data indicate that occupational exposure to lead is still a problem in Polish industry. The proportion (76%) of the workers covered with biological monitoring analysis show that neither the recommendations laid down in the decree of 1996 issued by the Minister of Health and Social Welfare, and reinforced by the Minister of Health in 2004, nor the EU directive (98/24/EC) is universally observed. Both these documents provide for that Pb-B determinations in employees occupationally exposed to lead are compulsory. The competences of the majority of analytical laboratories are not sufficient to evaluate biological monitoring analysis in workers occupationally exposed to lead. They have not yet adopted the obligatory Polish versions of European standards of the quality assurance set in PN-EN ISO/IEC 17025. The Minister of Health issued another decree, dated 20 April 2005, according to which from 1 January 2008 every analytical laboratory will have to possess accreditation.

Objectives: The study aimed at assessing the lung function in workers exposed to cadmium (Cd)., Materials and Methods: Pulmonary ventilatory function was assessed in 79 workers (mean age, 50.4+/-8.9 years, 44% of male workers) previously exposed to cadmium in a cadmium battery plant. The group, not occupationally exposed to cadmium (n = 159, mean age, 48.4+/-4.2 years, 56% of males) was selected from the inhabitants of the same town. All the subjects were examined at the same out-patient-clinic. In cadmium battery workers measurements of blood cadmium concentrations have been performed since 1983 by the Nofer Institute of Occupational Medicine in Lódź, Poland. The data on cadmium concentrations in the air were obtained from the plant's files covering the period of 1981-1999. All subjects were divided into four groups according to their cumulative cadmium exposure indexes: Cd-B x t (Cd in blood in microg/l x years of exposure ) ( index 1) or Cd-A x t (Cd in air mg/m3 years of exposure) (index 2). The ranges of Cd-B x t amounted to <25; 25-500; >500-1000 and > 1000 and Cd-A x t to <0.01; 0.01-1.5; >1.5-4.0 and >4.0. Statistical analysis of the results was performed by means of one-way analysis of variance with multiple comparison tests and Fisher's exact test., Results: The analysis of index 1 showed that only the group with the highest exposure level (>1000 microg Cd-B x years ) had a significantly decreased values for forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) peak expiratory flow rate (PEF) maximum midexpiratory flow (MEF) at 25%, 50%, and 75% compared to the group with the lowest exposure (<25 microg/l x years). As revealed by the analysis of index 2, the highest exposure group (>4 mg Cd-A x t) showed a significantly decreased MEF at 50% and not quite significantly decreased FEV1., Conclusions: Exposure to high cadmium concentrations in the cadmium battery plant resulted in the deterioration of some lung functions in the workers, suggesting a mild airway obstruction.

The concept of biological monitoring (BM) has evoked a lot of interest among individual scientists and international organizations. Biological monitoring of exposure has thus far been applied to environmental and occupational toxicology or epidemiological studies. At present, BM plays no more than complementary role in industrial hygiene. Moreover, it is not clear whether BM belongs to occupational hygiene or to occupational medicine. Consequently, BM recommendations are not regarded as legal standards in most countries. Nowadays, when analytical problems have almost ceased to exist due to new laboratory techniques and quality assurance systems, the methods for interpreting the results have become a major issue. New, promising areas of BM application include determination of pesticides, antineoplastic drugs, hard metals, and unchanged volatile organic compounds in urine. The identification of new possible health-based biomarkers of exposure and the development of more sensitive methods due to decreasing occupational exposure limits seem to be one of the most important issues.

Styrene is a chemical widely used in the plastic industry. The main pathway of styrene metabolism in humans occurs via the oxidation to styrene-7,8-oxide (7,8-SO). The aim of this study was the investigation of a minor metabolic route, involving the oxidation of the arene moiety of styrene, by means of the characterization of the conjugated urinary metabolites of 4-vinylphenol (4-VP). 4-vinylphenol-glucuronide (4-VP-G) and -sulfate (4-VP-S), were measured by liquid chromatography electrospray tandem mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS/MS) from 174 workers belonging to three cohorts recruited in European countries and from 26 volunteers exposed to 50 mg/m(3) (11.8 ppm) of styrene for 8 h. The 4-VP conjugates represented about 0.5-1% of the total excretion of styrene metabolites. Both 4-VP-G and 4-VP-S are eliminated with a monophasic kinetic, the glucuronide being excreted faster (half-time, 2.2 +/- 0.2 h) than the sulfate (half-time 9.7 +/- 1.7 h). The urinary 4-VP was found to be significantly correlated both with airborne styrene (r = 0.607, p < 0.001) and the sum of MA and PGA (r = 0.903, p < 0.001 in "end-of-shift" samples). Apart from 7,8-SO, 4-VP is the only styrene metabolite not shared with ethylbenzene and therefore thought to be a highly specific marker of styrene exposure. However, a measurable background excretion of 4-VP was also found in all urine samples from controls not occupationally exposed to styrene. This background appears to be highly correlated to smoking (p < 0.001) and possibly also to the dietary intake of styrene or 4-VP. Consequently, the use of 4-VP as a biomarker of styrene exposure is recommended for exposures exceeding 1 ppm.

Objectives: The study was aimed at assessing the reversibility of renal tubule dysfunction in workers exposed to cadmium according to the severity of microproteinuria, concentrations of cadmium in urine (Cd-U), and the time since removal from exposure., Methods: The study was carried out in a nickel-cadmium battery factory. Exposure to cadmium was formerly very high. In 1983 and in 1986-1988, geometric mean concentrations of cadmium in blood (Cd-B) of workers amounted to 23.3 micro g/l and 55.7 microg/l, respectively. Workers with determinations of Cd-B, Cd-U and retinol binding protein in urine (RBP-U) in the past were eligible for the study. Fifty-eight workers who had met this profile and had been removed from exposure to cadmium before 1998 were investigated in 1998-1999. They were divided into three groups according to their RBP-U concentrations in 1986-1988: <300 ( n=26); 301-1,501 ( n=25) and >1501 microg/g creatinine ( n=7)., Results: In 1999, the RPB-U levels were below 300 microg/g creatinine in 85%, 64% and 42% of persons from groups 1, 2 and 3, respectively. Statistical analysis of the results by means of multi-parametric logistic regression analysis revealed that, from the viewpoint of reversibility of tubular proteinuria, its severity in 1986-1988 was most important. Also, the time since the removal from exposure to cadmium and Cd-U levels seemed to play some role, but the influence of these parameters was not statistically significant. Significant correlation between beta(2)-microglobulin in serum (beta(2)M-S) and RBP-U concentrations measured in 1998-1999 with apparent lack of correlation between beta(2)M-S and RBP-U concentrations in 1986-1988 supports the hypothesis that the glomerular impairment induced by cadmium may be secondary to the tubular lesion rather than independent from tubular effect., Conclusions: The results show that the tubular proteinuria, and maybe also the decline in glomerular filtration rate, may be reversible, even in the case of relatively high past exposure. The results confirm the necessity for monitoring urinary levels of low-molecular-weight proteins during periodic examination of workers exposed to cadmium.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the dose-effect and dose-response relationships between the integrated indexes Cd-A x t (mg/m3 x years of exposure) and Cd-B x t (microg/l x years of exposure), and the increase in retinol binding protein excretion in urine (RBP-U) and beta2-microglobulin concentration in serum (beta2M-S). The study was carried out in the nickel-cadmium battery factory in 1998-1999. Exposure to cadmium was formerly very high. The study group consisted of 116 persons for whom the results of determinations of Cd-B were available during two former observation periods (1983 and 1986-1988). The mean age of the group was 49 years and the mean period of exposure was 17 years. The dose-effect relationship between Cd-B x t and RBP-U or beta2M-S was much better (r = 0.642 and 0.513) than between Cd-A x t and RBP-U or beta2M-S (r = 0.173 and 0.127). There was also correlation between Cd-U (microg/g creatinine), measured in 1998-1999, and RBP-U or beta2M-S (r = 0.343 and 0.198). Urinary cadmium should, however, be used with caution as a dose estimate because its excretion may increase as a result of renal damage. According to the dose-response relationship, an increase in RBP excretion above 300 microg/g creatinine can be expected in 10% of subjects at the integrated exposure index (Cd-B x t) of about 450 microg/l x years, and an increase in beta2M-S above the accepted cut-off point of 2.4 mg/l can be expected in 10 % of subjects at Cd-B x t of about 190 microg/l x years. The data obtained confirmed the validity of the recommended at present health-based limit for occupational exposure of 5 microg/l of blood, as well as the superiority of the biological monitoring of exposure to cadmium over the environmental monitoring.

The nervous system is the major target of the toxic effect of manganese (Mn) and its compounds. Nowadays, neurological diagnostics is directed towards early detection of symptoms and abortive forms, and the cases of serious damage of the nervous system are no longer reported. The aim of the present study was to assess the effects of manganese on the functions of the nervous system in workers exposed to this metal in the ship and electrical industries. The study covered a selected group of 75 male workers (mean age 39.17 yr +/- 9.79; range 20-56 yr), including 62 welders and fitters, as well as 13 workers involved in the battery production. Their employment duration ranged between 1 and 41 yr (mean 17.5 yr +/- 10.81). During the welding process the air Mn concentrations varied from 0.004 to 2.67 mg/m3 (arithmetic mean, 0.399 mg/m3; geometric mean, 0.154 mg/m3; standard deviation, 0.586). Of the 62 workers, 30 worked in the area with exceeding MAC value of 0.3 mg/m3. At the battery production workposts, Mn concentrations fell within 0.086-1.164 mg/m3 (arithmetic mean, 0.338 mg/m3, geometric mean, 0.261 mg/m3; standard deviation, 0.292). The values of current Mn exposure in the study group fell within the range below 0.01 and 2.67 mg/m3 (arithmetic mean, 0.4 mg/m; geometric mean, 0.15 mg/m3). Of the 13 subjects, 6 worked at the Mn air concentration exceeding MAC values. In the exposed group, the values of cumulated exposure index ranged from 0.008 to 35.52 (arithmetic mean, 8.045; geometric mean, 4.615; standard deviation, 6.562). The control group consisted of 62 men non-occupationally exposed to Mn, matched by sex, age and work shift distribution. Clinically, the increased emotional irritability, dysmnesia, concentration difficulties, sleepiness and limb paresthesia predominated among the disorders of the nervous system functions in workers chronically exposed to manganese. Neither in the central nor in the peripheral nervous system, the objective examinations revealed organic lesions that could provide grounds for diagnosing toxic encephalopathy or polyneuropathy. Generalized and paroxysmal changes were the most common recordings in the abnormal electroencephalography. Visual evoked potentials examinations showed abnormalities in the response evoked, which could be a signal of the optic neuron disorders and their significant relationship with cumulated exposure. The results of the study demonstrate that Mn exposure within the range of <0.01-2.67 mg/m3 (arithmetic mean, 0.4 mg/m3; geometric mean, 0.15 mg/m3) induces subclinical effects on the nervous system.

A study was undertaken to assess the relationship between inhalation exposure to arsenic in copper smeltery workers and urinary excretion of total inorganic arsenic metabolites (Asitm), including inorganic arsenic (Asi), monomethylarsonic acid (MMA) and dimethylarsinic acid (DMA). The methods applied made it possible, in principle, to determine all forms of airborne arsenic and to eliminate the influence of seafood-derived organoarsenicals on the level of urinary Asitm. Air samples were collected on the second day of work after the weekend break. Urine samples were collected just after shift-end on the same workday. The time-weighted average (TWA) concentrations of arsenic in the workers' breathing zone varied between 1 and 746 microg/m3 and Asitm concentrations in urine between 2 and 850 microg/l (s.g. 1.024). The urine samples with a specific gravity of lower than 1.010 and higher than 1.030 were not considered; neither were those subjects with an Asitm excretion efficiency of higher than 100% of the dose absorbed during the day of measurement. In total, 53 air samples and corresponding urine samples were obtained. The correlation coefficient between the airborne arsenic concentration in microg/m3 (X) and the concentration of urinary Asitm in microg/l, s.g. 1.024 (Y), was 0.723. The relation between the two variables can be presented using the following formula: Y = 6.29 x X0.616. According to the findings of this study, as well as the results of three other studies based on similar principles, the daily exposure to arsenic concentrations of 10 microg/m3 and 50 microg/m3 led to concentrations of Asitm in urine of about 30 microg/l and 70 microg/l (s.g. 1.024), respectively.

Occupational exposure to lead occurs in about 1,300 enterprises in Poland. According to the 1994 data, based on the reports of the State Sanitary Inspectorate, 1,970 persons were employed at that time under conditions of exposure exceeding the Polish MAC level of 0.050 mg/m3. The measurements of workers' blood lead concentrations (Pb-B) were carried out only in 90 factories. In 1996, the Minister of Health and Social Welfare issued a directive stating that the Pb-B determinations in employees occupationally exposed to lead are compulsory. The aim of the present study was to assess lead exposure of workers employed in different branches of the Polish economy, based on Pb-B determinations. The measurements were performed on 2,324 male and 165 female workers of 13 different types of industry, including manufacture of crystal glass, battery industry, copper and zinc smelters, welding in a repair shipyard and some other workposts under conditions of lead exposure. The results of the determinations indicate that exposure to lead continues to be a serious problem in Polish industry. Pb-B concentrations exceeded the newly introduced Polish biological exposure index (BEI) value of 500 micrograms/l for men workers in about 30% of workers examined in 1996. In about 65% of females under 45 years of age the Pb-B concentrations were higher than 300 micrograms/l recommended as BEI for this age group. Considering the WHO-recommended health-based maximum individual biological action level of 400 micrograms/l, the percentage of the employees for whom higher values were found amounted to about 45% for men workers. The results point to the necessity of enforcing the implementation of Pb-B determinations according to the ministerial ordinance as well as of removing from exposure the workers with Pb-B levels exceeding the present BEI values. The improvement of working conditions and the implementation of health education for workers are also the actions to be promptly undertaken. In order to achieve these goals a close cooperation is required between the State Sanitary Inspectorate, the institutes of occupational health as well as the employers and trade unions.

This study was undertaken to establish whether occupational exposures to derivatives of carcinogenic metals evoke inflammatory immune responses, as determined by the presence of elevated titers of antibodies (Ab) that recognize oxidized DNA bases. Sera obtained from the blood of steel welders (Delaware) and from workers of the Centra Ni-Cd Battery Factory (Poznań, Poland) were analyzed by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. To determine specific and nonspecific binding, an oxidized thymidine [5-hydroxymethyl-2'-deoxyuridine (HMdU)] coupled to bovine serum albumin (HMdU-BSA) as well as mock-coupled BSA (M-BSA) were used as antigens for coating the wells of microtiter plates. Titers of anti-HMdU Ab were significantly elevated in the high Cd and Ni exposure groups (18.3 +/- 3.2 vs 10.8 +/- 2.1 A492/microliters; p < 0.05). The sera of the groups with low exposures to Cd and Ni also had enhanced titers of those Ab but those increases were not statistically significant. Interestingly, the Ab titers present in the sera of controls for Cd and Ni exposures appear to be constant regardless of the protein content. In contrast, both lightly and heavily exposed subjects exhibited Ab titers that increased with increasing protein content. When 12 randomly selected workers (4 from each of the control, lightly, and heavily exposed groups) were outfitted with personal monitors, anti-HMdU Ab titers of those workers showed a significant difference between the groups with light (< 100 micrograms/m3) and heavy (> 200 micrograms/m3) exposures to Cd (9.8 +/- 3.7 vs 22.1 +/- 3.7 A492/microliters; p < 0.01) and Ni (11.7 +/- 1.4 vs 31.0 +/- 1.8; p < 0.001).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The kinetics of trichloroethylene were examined in three men, 28-36 years old, hospitalized after an acute occupational exposure. The trichloroethylene concentration of venous blood was determined by gas chromatography with headspace analysis; urinary trichloroacetic acid was assayed by the colorimetric method of Fujiwara. The kinetics of blood trichlorethylene (t1/2 21.7 h) and the urinary elimination of trichloracetic acid over six days were used to calculate the total inhalation exposures. Blood trichlorethylene was diagnostically more relevant than urinary trichloracetic acid.

In a study carried out in an alkaline battery factory, the study group consisted of 141 factory workers exposed to cadmium, while 206 workers in the textile industry constituted the control group. Cadmium in blood (Cd-B), cadmium in urine (Cd-U) as well as beta 2-microglobulin and retinol-binding protein (RBP) in urine were determined. Exposure to cadmium in the factory was high. In 1988, Cd-B concentrations in different departments averaged 11.2-29.9 micrograms/l. To evaluate the admissible period of occupational exposure to cadmium, an integrated exposure index [Cd-B (micrograms/l) x years of exposure] is proposed. According to the dose-response relationship, an increase in low molecular weight protein excretion in urine can be expected in 10% of subjects at an integrated exposure index of about 300 micrograms/l x years of exposure. The data obtained confirmed the validity of the recommended health-based limits for occupational exposure of 10 micrograms/l and 10 micrograms/g creatinine for Cd-B and Cd-U respectively.

The study aimed at detecting psychological effects of chronic occupational exposure to the mixtures of solvents used in furniture varnishing. 36 exposed workers and 34 controls selected so as to account for age, education level and the nature work were examined. The following tests were used in the examinations: the Neurobehavioral Core Test Battery, Orebro Symptom Questionnaire, Perceived Stress Scale. A slow-down of perceptive and motor activities, which intensified with the duration of exposure, was the only observed adverse effect of the exposure. The workers employed for periods longer than 15 years more often reported symptoms of psychic function disturbances and deterioration of their health condition.