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During infection, animals exhibit adaptive changes in physiology and behavior aimed at increasing survival. Although many causes of infection exist, they trigger similar stereotyped symptoms such as fever, warmth seeking, loss of appetite and fatigue(1,2). Yet exactly how the nervous system alters body temperature and triggers sickness behaviors to coordinate responses to infection remains unknown. Here we identify a previously uncharacterized population of neurons in the ventral medial preoptic area (VMPO) of the hypothalamus that are activated after lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and Poly (I:C)- induced sickness and are critical for generating a fever response and other sickness symptoms such as warmth-seeking and loss of appetite. Single-nucleus RNA-sequencing and multiplexed error-robust fluorescent in situ hybridization (MERFISH) uncovered the identity and distribution of LPS-activated VMPO (VMPO(LPS)) neurons and non-neuronal cells. Gene expression and electrophysiological measurements suggest a paracrine mechanism in which the release of immune signals by non-neuronal cells during infection activates nearby VMPO(LPS) neurons. Finally, we show that VMPO(LPS) neurons exert a broad influence on the activity of brain areas associated with behavioral and homeostatic functions and are synaptically and functionally connected to circuit nodes controlling body temperature and appetite. Together these results uncover VMPO(LPS) neurons as a control hub that integrates immune signals to orchestrate multiple sickness symptoms in response to infection.

The function of serotonin in the mammalian brain has been challenging to unravel. In this issue of Neuron, Paquelet et al. (2022) employ microendoscopy to record over 2,000 dorsal raphe serotonin neurons, yielding new insights into their activity from the single neuron to the population level.

Infection-induced aversion against enteropathogens is a conserved sickness behaviour that can promote host survival1,2. The aetiology of this behaviour remains poorly understood, but studies in Drosophila have linked olfactory and gustatory perception to avoidance behaviours against toxic microorganisms3-5. Whether and how enteric infections directly influence sensory perception to induce or modulate such behaviours remains unknown. Here we show that enteropathogen infection in Drosophila can modulate olfaction through metabolic reprogramming of ensheathing glia of the antennal lobe. Infection-induced unpaired cytokine expression in the intestine activates JAK-STAT signalling in ensheathing glia, inducing the expression of glial monocarboxylate transporters and the apolipoprotein glial lazarillo (GLaz), and affecting metabolic coupling of glia and neurons at the antennal lobe. This modulates olfactory discrimination, promotes the avoidance of bacteria-laced food and increases fly survival. Although transient in young flies, gut-induced metabolic reprogramming of ensheathing glia becomes constitutive in old flies owing to age-related intestinal inflammation, which contributes to an age-related decline in olfactory discrimination. Our findings identify adaptive glial metabolic reprogramming by gut-derived cytokines as a mechanism that causes lasting changes in a sensory system in ageing flies.

Advanced imaging methods now allow cell-type-specific recording of neural activity across the mammalian brain, potentially enabling the exploration of how brain-wide dynamical patterns give rise to complex behavioural states1–12. Dissociation is an altered behavioural state in which the integrity of experience is disrupted, resulting in reproducible cognitive phenomena including the dissociation of stimulus detection from stimulus-related affective responses. Dissociation can occur as a result of trauma, epilepsy or dissociative drug use13,14, but despite its substantial basic and clinical importance, the underlying neurophysiology of this state is unknown. Here we establish such a dissociation-like state in mice, induced by precisely-dosed administration of ketamine or phencyclidine. Large-scale imaging of neural activity revealed that these dissociative agents elicited a 1–3-Hz rhythm in layer 5 neurons of the retrosplenial cortex. Electrophysiological recording with four simultaneously deployed high-density probes revealed rhythmic coupling of the retrosplenial cortex with anatomically connected components of thalamus circuitry, but uncoupling from most other brain regions was observed—including a notable inverse correlation with frontally projecting thalamic nuclei. In testing for causal significance, we found that rhythmic optogenetic activation of retrosplenial cortex layer 5 neurons recapitulated dissociation-like behavioural effects. Local retrosplenial hyperpolarization-activated cyclic-nucleotide-gated potassium channel 1 (HCN1) pacemakers were required for systemic ketamine to induce this rhythm and to elicit dissociation-like behavioural effects. In a patient with focal epilepsy, simultaneous intracranial stereoencephalography recordings from across the brain revealed a similarly localized rhythm in the homologous deep posteromedial cortex that was temporally correlated with pre-seizure self-reported dissociation, and local brief electrical stimulation of this region elicited dissociative experiences. These results identify the molecular, cellular and physiological properties of a conserved deep posteromedial cortical rhythm that underlies states of dissociation. Dissociative states in mouse and human brains are traced to low-frequency rhythmic neural activity—with distinct molecular, cellular and physiological properties—in the deep retrosplenial cortex and the posteromedial cortex.

General principles of neuronal communication The explosion of modern technologies over the past years has produced vast amounts of knowledge about the molecular, anatomical, and physiological properties of individual neurons. However, individual neurons do not function in isolation; they interact with each other in circuits to process information. Luo attempted to synthesize different types of investigations to extract generalized principles underlying how neurons communicate with each other through specific patterns of synaptic connectivity. Although different elements of the projection motifs and architectural plans have been discussed separately in the past, these motifs and architectures can now be brought together in the same intellectual framework. —PRS

The Cre-loxP system is invaluable for spatial and temporal control of gene knockout, knockin, and reporter expression in the mouse nervous system. However, we report varying probabilities of unexpected germline recombination in distinct Cre driver lines designed for nervous system-specific recombination. Selective maternal or paternal germline recombination is showcased with sample Cre lines. Collated data reveal germline recombination in over half of 64 commonly used Cre driver lines, in most cases with a parental sex bias related to Cre expression in sperm or oocytes. Slight differences among Cre driver lines utilizing common transcriptional control elements affect germline recombination rates. Specific target loci demonstrated differential recombination; thus, reporters are not reliable proxies for another locus of interest. Similar principles apply to other recombinase systems and other genetically targeted organisms. We hereby draw attention to the prevalence of germline recombination and provide guidelines to inform future research for the neuroscience and broader molecular genetics communities.

Memories of fearful events can last a lifetime. The prelimbic (PL) cortex, a subregion of prefrontal cortex, plays a critical role in fear memory retrieval over time. Most studies have focused on acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval of recent memories, but much less is known about the neural mechanisms of remote memory. Using a new knock-in mouse for activity-dependent genetic labeling (TRAP2), we demonstrate that neuronal ensembles in the PL cortex are dynamic. PL neurons TRAPed during later memory retrievals are more likely to be reactivated and make larger behavioral contributions to remote memory retrieval compared to those TRAPed during learning or early memory retrieval. PL activity during learning is required to initiate this time-dependent reorganization in PL ensembles underlying memory retrieval. Finally, while neurons TRAPed during earlier and later retrievals have similar broad projections throughout the brain, PL neurons TRAPed later have a stronger functional recruitment of cortical targets.

INTRODUCTION: The brains of extant animals have evolved over hundreds of millions of years from simple circuits. Cell types diversified, connections elaborated, and new brain regions emerged. Models for brain region evolution range from duplication of existing regions to splitting of previously multifunctional regions and de novo assembly from existing cell types. These models, however, have not been demonstrated in vertebrate brains at cell-type resolution. RATIONALE: We investigated brain region evolution using the cerebellar nuclei as a model system. The cerebellum is a major hindbrain structure in jawed vertebrates, comprising the cerebellar cortex and cerebellar nuclei. It is thought to act as a feedforward model for motor control and cognitive processes. The cerebellar cortex receives and processes inputs and sends outputs to the cerebellar nuclei, which route the results of cerebellar computations to the rest of the brain. Whereas the cerebellar cortex is well conserved across vertebrates, the cerebellar nuclei vary in number, with none in jawless vertebrates, one pair in cartilaginous fishes and amphibians, two pairs in reptiles and birds, and three pairs in mammals. This pattern suggests that extant cerebellar nuclei evolved from a single ancestral nucleus. Cerebellar nuclei thus provide a good model to interrogate brain region evolution. RESULTS: We characterized the cerebellar nuclei in mice, chickens, and humans using whole-brain and spinal cord projection mapping in cleared samples, single-nucleus RNA sequencing (snRNAseq), and spatially resolved transcript amplicon readout mapping (STARmap) analysis. We first compared the projection patterns of the three cerebellar nuclei of mice. Our data reveal broad projections of all nuclei, which in common target regions are shifted relative to each other. To understand the transcriptomic differences that underlie these shifting projections, we produced a cell-type atlas of the mouse cerebellar nuclei using snRNAseq. We discovered three region-invariant inhibitory cell classes and 15 region-specific excitatory cell types. Excitatory cell types fall into two classes with distinct gene expression and electrophysiological properties. Members of each class are present in every nucleus and are putative sister cell types. STARmap analysis in mice revealed that the organizational unit of the cerebellar nuclei is cytoarchitectonically distinguishable subnuclei, each of which contains the three inhibitory and two excitatory classes. To test whether this archetypal subnucleus is also the evolutionary unit of the cerebellar nuclei, we performed snRNAseq and STARmap on the chicken cerebellar nuclei. We identified four subnuclei, three of which had direct orthologs in mice. Each chicken subnucleus contained the same cell-type set of three inhibitory and two excitatory classes already identified in mice, confirming our hypothesis. Cerebellar nuclei vary in size across vertebrates. In particular, the human lateral nucleus is markedly expanded. To understand this expansion, we performed snRNAseq in humans. We found that the medial and interposed nuclei maintained the archetypal cerebellar nuclei composition. However, the lateral nucleus expanded one excitatory cell class at the expense of the other. Conditional tracing in the mouse lateral nucleus revealed that the cell class expanded in humans preferentially accesses lateral frontal cortices via specific intermediate thalamic nuclei. CONCLUSION: We identified a conserved cell-type set that forms an archetypal cerebellar nucleus as the unit of cerebellar nuclei organization and evolution. We propose that this archetypal nucleus was repeatedly duplicated during evolution, accompanied primarily by transcriptomic divergence of excitatory neurons and shifts in their projection patterns. Our data support a model of duplication-and-divergence of entire cell-type sets for brain region evolution.

Large scientific projects in genomics and astronomy are influential not because they answer any single question but because they enable investigation of continuously arising new questions from the same data-rich sources. Advances in automated mapping of the brain's synaptic connections (connectomics) suggest that the complicated circuits underlying brain function are ripe for analysis. We discuss benefits of mapping a mouse brain at the level of synapses.

Mother-infant bonding develops rapidly following parturition and is accompanied by changes in sensory perception and behavior. Here, we studied how ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) are represented in the brain of mothers. Using a mouse line that allows temporally controlled genetic access to active neurons, we found that the temporal association cortex (TeA) in mothers exhibits robust USV responses. Rabies tracing from USV-responsive neurons revealed extensive subcortical and cortical inputs into TeA. A particularly dominant cortical source of inputs is primary auditory cortex (A1), suggesting strong A1-to-TeA connectivity. Chemogenetic silencing of USV-responsive neurons in TeA impaired auditory-driven maternal preference in a pup-retrieval assay. Furthermore, dense extracellular recordings from awake mice revealed changes of both single neurons’ and population responses to USVs in TeA; improving discriminability of pup calls in mothers as compared to naïve females. These data indicate that TeA plays a key role in encoding and perceiving pup cries during motherhood.

Significance Autism is a complex neurodevelopmental disorder whose causative mechanisms are unclear. Taking advantage of a unique cohort with recessively inherited autism, we identified six families with biallelic mutation of the neuronal-specific subunit of the BAF complex, ACTL6B (also known as BAF53b). Relative to all other genes, ACTL6B was the most statistically significant mutated gene in the recessive autism cohort. We describe autism-relevant phenotypes in human brain organoids and in mouse and fly models. We foresee the outcomes from this study will be the following: 1) a link between neuronal activity-dependent transcriptional repression and autism; 2) a characterization of mouse and fly models to study ACTL6B mutant autism; and 3) an understanding the role of ACTL6B and nBAF complexes in neuronal transcriptional regulation., Synaptic activity in neurons leads to the rapid activation of genes involved in mammalian behavior. ATP-dependent chromatin remodelers such as the BAF complex contribute to these responses and are generally thought to activate transcription. However, the mechanisms keeping such “early activation” genes silent have been a mystery. In the course of investigating Mendelian recessive autism, we identified six families with segregating loss-of-function mutations in the neuronal BAF (nBAF) subunit ACTL6B (originally named BAF53b). Accordingly, ACTL6B was the most significantly mutated gene in the Simons Recessive Autism Cohort. At least 14 subunits of the nBAF complex are mutated in autism, collectively making it a major contributor to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Patient mutations destabilized ACTL6B protein in neurons and rerouted dendrites to the wrong glomerulus in the fly olfactory system. Humans and mice lacking ACTL6B showed corpus callosum hypoplasia, indicating a conserved role for ACTL6B in facilitating neural connectivity. Actl6b knockout mice on two genetic backgrounds exhibited ASD-related behaviors, including social and memory impairments, repetitive behaviors, and hyperactivity. Surprisingly, mutation of Actl6b relieved repression of early response genes including AP1 transcription factors (Fos, Fosl2, Fosb, and Junb), increased chromatin accessibility at AP1 binding sites, and transcriptional changes in late response genes associated with early response transcription factor activity. ACTL6B loss is thus an important cause of recessive ASD, with impaired neuron-specific chromatin repression indicated as a potential mechanism.

Emerging evidence supports the hypothesis that pathogenic protein aggregates associated with neurodegenerative diseases spread from cell to cell through the brain in a manner akin to infectious prions. Here, we show that mutant huntingtin (mHtt) aggregates associated with Huntington disease transfer anterogradely from presynaptic to postsynaptic neurons in the adult Drosophila olfactory system. Trans-synaptic transmission of mHtt aggregates is inversely correlated with neuronal activity and blocked by inhibiting caspases in presynaptic neurons, implicating synaptic dysfunction and cell death in aggregate spreading. Remarkably, mHtt aggregate transmission across synapses requires the glial scavenger receptor Draper and involves a transient visit to the glial cytoplasm, indicating that phagocytic glia act as obligatory intermediates in aggregate spreading between synaptically-connected neurons. These findings expand our understanding of phagocytic glia as double-edged players in neurodegeneration—by clearing neurotoxic protein aggregates, but also providing an opportunity for prion-like seeds to evade phagolysosomal degradation and propagate further in the brain.

Single-cell transcriptomics has been widely applied to classify neurons in the mammalian brain, while systems neuroscience has historically analyzed the encoding properties of cortical neurons without considering cell types. Here we examine how specific transcriptomic types of mouse prefrontal cortex (PFC) projection neurons relate to axonal projections and encoding properties across multiple cognitive tasks. We found that most types projected to multiple targets, and most targets received projections from multiple types, except PFC→PAG (periaqueductal gray). By comparing Ca(2+) activity of the molecularly homogeneous PFC→PAG type against two heterogeneous classes in several two-alternative choice tasks in freely moving mice, we found that all task-related signals assayed were qualitatively present in all examined classes. However, PAG-projecting neurons most potently encoded choice in cued tasks, whereas contralateral PFC-projecting neurons most potently encoded reward context in an uncued task. Thus, task signals are organized redundantly, but with clear quantitative biases across cells of specific molecular-anatomical characteristics.

A close view of the paraventricular thalamus The paraventricular thalamus is a relay station connecting brainstem and hypothalamic signals that represent internal states with the limbic forebrain that performs associative functions in emotional contexts. Zhu et al. found that paraventricular thalamic neurons represent multiple salient features of sensory stimuli, including reward, aversiveness, novelty, and surprise. The nucleus thus provides context-dependent salience encoding. The thalamus gates sensory information and contributes to the sleep-wake cycle through its interactions with the cerebral cortex. Ren et al. recorded from neurons in the paraventricular thalamus and observed that both population and single-neuron activity were tightly coupled with wakefulness. Science , this issue p. 423 , p. 429

Brain functions rely on specific patterns of connectivity. Teneurins are evolutionarily conserved transmembrane proteins that instruct synaptic partner matching in Drosophila and are required for vertebrate visual system development. The roles of vertebrate Teneurins in connectivity beyond the visual system remain largely unknown and their mechanisms of action have not been demonstrated. Here we show that mouse Teneurin-3 is expressed in multiple topographically interconnected areas of the hippocampal region, including proximal CA1, distal subiculum, and medial entorhinal cortex. Viral-genetic analyses reveal that Teneurin-3 is required in both CA1 and subicular neurons for the precise targeting of proximal CA1 axons to distal subiculum. Furthermore, Teneurin-3 promotes homophilic adhesion in vitro in a splicing isoform-dependent manner. These findings demonstrate striking genetic heterogeneity across multiple hippocampal areas and suggest that Teneurin-3 may orchestrate the assembly of a complex distributed circuit in the mammalian brain via matching expression and homophilic attraction.

Water deprivation produces a drive to seek and consume water. How neural activity creates this motivation remains poorly understood. We used activity-dependent genetic labeling to characterize neurons activated by water deprivation in the hypothalamic median preoptic nucleus (MnPO). Single-cell transcriptional profiling revealed that dehydration-activated MnPO neurons consist of a single excitatory cell type. After optogenetic activation of these neurons, mice drank water and performed an operant lever-pressing task for water reward with rates that scaled with stimulation frequency. This stimulation was aversive, and instrumentally pausing stimulation could reinforce lever-pressing. Activity of these neurons gradually decreased over the course of an operant session. Thus, the activity of dehydration-activated MnPO neurons establishes a scalable, persistent, and aversive internal state that dynamically controls thirst-motivated behavior.

Neural crest rules the gut The neurons and glial cells that regulate gut function derive from neural crest cells that emerge from the developing neural tube. Lasrado et al. used single-cell transcriptomics and mosaic mutagenesis to follow how the enteric nervous system is built in mice. Overlapping expression of regulatory programs supports dynamic determination of cell fates, with the developing neurons organized by clonal lineages. The clonal build model may explain how gut motility is coordinated in sequential segments and gut secretion is coordinated with motility. Science , this issue p. 722

Slow, controlled breathing has been used for centuries to promote mental calming, and it is used clinically to suppress excessive arousal such as panic attacks. However, the physiological and neural basis of the relationship between breathing and higher-order brain activity is unknown. We found a neuronal subpopulation in the mouse preBotzinger complex (preBotC), the primary breathing rhythm generator, which regulates the balance between calm and arousal behaviors. Conditional, bilateral genetic ablation of the ~175 Cdh9/Dbx1 double-positive preBotC neurons in adult mice left breathing intact but increased calm behaviors and decreased time in aroused states. These neurons project to, synapse on, and positively regulate noradrenergic neurons in the locus coeruleus, a brain center implicated in attention, arousal, and panic that projects throughout the brain.

Drugs of abuse elicit powerful experiences that engage populations of neurons broadly distributed throughout the brain. To determine how synaptic connectivity is organized to enable robust communication between populations of drug-activated neurons, we developed a complementary targeting system for monosynaptic rabies virus (RV) tracing that identifies direct inputs to activated versus non-activated neuronal populations. Analysis of over 100,000 synaptic input neurons demonstrated that cocaine-activated neurons comprise selectively connected, but broadly distributed, corticostriatal networks. Electrophysiological assays using optogenetics to stimulate activated versus non-activated inputs revealed stronger synapses between co-activated cortical pyramidal neurons and neurons in the dorsal striatum (DS). Repeated cocaine exposure further enhanced the connectivity specifically between drug-activated neurons in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and co-active DS neurons. Selective chemogenetic silencing of cocaine-activated OFC neurons or their terminals in DS disrupted behavioral sensitization, demonstrating the utility of this methodology for identifying novel circuit elements that contribute to behavioral plasticity.

The projection targets of a neuronal population are a key feature of its anatomical characterization. Historically, tissue sectioning, confocal microscopy, and manual scoring of specific regions of interest have been used to generate coarse summaries of mesoscale projectomes. We present here TrailMap, a 3D convolutional network for extracting axonal projections from intact cleared mouse brains imaged by light-sheet microscopy. TrailMap allows region-based quantification of total axon content in large and complex 3D structures after registration to a standard reference atlas. The identification of axonal structures as thin as one voxel benefits from data augmentation but also requires a loss function that tolerates errors in annotation. A network trained with volumes of serotonergic axons in all major brain regions can be generalized to map and quantify axons from thalamocortical, deep cerebellar, and cortical projection neurons, validating transfer learning as a tool to adapt the model to novel categories of axonal morphology. Speed of training, ease of use, and accuracy improve over existing tools without a need for specialized computing hardware. Given the recent emphasis on genetically and functionally defining cell types in neural circuit analysis, TrailMap will facilitate automated extraction and quantification of axons from these specific cell types at the scale of the entire mouse brain, an essential component of deciphering their connectivity.

Cortical networks are characterized by sparse connectivity, with synapses found at only a subset of axo-dendritic contacts. Yet within these networks, neurons can exhibit high connection probabilities, suggesting that cell-intrinsic factors, not proximity, determine connectivity. Here, we identify ephrin-B3 (eB3) as a factor that determines synapse density by mediating a cell-cell competition that requires ephrin-B-EphB signaling. In a microisland culture system designed to isolate cell-cell competition, we find that eB3 determines winning and losing neurons in a contest for synapses. In a Mosaic Analysis with Double Markers (MADM) genetic mouse model system in vivo the relative levels of eB3 control spine density in layer 5 and 6 neurons. MADM cortical neurons in vitro reveal that eB3 controls synapse density independently of action potential-driven activity. Our findings illustrate a new class of competitive mechanism mediated by trans-synaptic organizing proteins which control the number of synapses neurons receive relative to neighboring neurons.

Haploinsufficiency of Retinoic Acid Induced 1 (RAI1) causes Smith-Magenis syndrome (SMS), which is associated with diverse neurodevelopmental and behavioral symptoms as well as obesity. RAI1 encodes a nuclear protein but little is known about its molecular function or the cell types responsible for SMS symptoms. Using genetically engineered mice, we found that Rai1 preferentially occupies DNA regions near active promoters and promotes the expression of a group of genes involved in circuit assembly and neuronal communication. Behavioral analyses demonstrated that pan-neural loss of Rai1 causes deficits in motor function, learning, and food intake. These SMS-like phenotypes are produced by loss of Rai1 function in distinct neuronal types: Rai1 loss in inhibitory neurons or subcortical glutamatergic neurons causes learning deficits, while Rai1 loss in Sim1+ or SF1+ cells causes obesity. By integrating molecular and organismal analyses, our study suggests potential therapeutic avenues for a complex neurodevelopmental disorder.

INTRODUCTION: Motivational drives are internal states that can explain why animals adaptively display distinct behaviors in response to the same external stimulus. Physiological needs (e.g., for food and water) are thought to produce specific drives that engage particular goal-directed behaviors to promote survival. These drives are established through the activity of populations of hypothalamic neurons that sense physiological variables and relay this information to other parts of the brain. However, it is unclear how the activity of these hypothalamic neurons activates and coordinates other brain systems involved in sensation, decision-making, and action in order to produce the appropriate goal-directed behavior. The cellular dynamics of brainwide states underlying basic survival drives have heretofore remained inaccessible. RATIONALE: Understanding the neural basis of motivated behavior would require measuring activity within distributed neural circuits in the brain and studying how this activity is regulated by the animal’s motivational state. Recent advances in extracellular electrophysiological recording technology have enabled large-scalemeasurements of neuronal activity throughout the brains of behaving animals. This technologycould lead to a spatiotemporal map of activity flow across the brain as an animal senses and responds to stimuli under different conditions. By examining the animal in different motivational states, we could determine how these states are represented in diverse brain regions and how these states influence neuronal activity across the brain to alter behavior. RESULTS: We recorded the activity of ~24,000 neurons throughout 34 brain regions during thirst-motivated choice behavior; these recordings were performed across 87 sessions from 21 mice as they gradually consumed water and became sated. We found that more than half of recorded neurons were modulated by this task, with a rapid and widespread response to a water-predicting olfactory cue preceding sustained activity related to water acquisition. The animal’s satiety state gated this wave of activity: In satiated mice, the same sensory cue produced only a transient change in activity and no behavioral response. Surprisingly, the spontaneous baseline activity of neurons across many brain regions was also modulated by the animal’s satiety state. We found diverse correlates of the task at the single-neuron level, with many neurons’ activity correlating with specific sensory cues or behavior, and some of them highly modulated by satiety state. Neurons from each of these groups were distributed throughout the brain, with each brain area differing in the relative proportions of different types of neurons. We separated the high-dimensional population activity dynamics into lower-dimensional state-, cue-, and behavior-related modes. Whereas the cue-and behavior-related modes were primarily modulated by the task in a satiety state–dependent manner, activity along the state mode was persistent throughout the trial, including the period before odor onset. Thus, there existed a brainwide representation of satiety state that appeared to gate the flow of activity in response to sensory inputs. Finally, as a causal test of the role of this widespread encoding of satiety state, we optogenetically stimulated hypothalamic thirst neurons and caused mice to perform more trials after reaching satiety. We found that this focal stimulation returned the behavior, brainwide single-neuron within-trial dynamics, and brainwide single-neuron correlates of satiety state back to the state corresponding to thirst. Stimulation also specifically modulated activity along the satiety-related mode in a subset of brain areas. CONCLUSION: Our experiments revealed a global representation of the thirst motivational state throughout the brain, which appears to gate the brainwide propagation of sensory information and its subsequent transformation into behavioral output.

Tremendous progress has been made since Neuron published our primer on genetic dissection of neural circuits ten years ago. Since then, cell type-specific anatomical, neurophysiological, and perturbation studies have been carried out in a multitude of invertebrate and vertebrate organisms, linking neurons and circuits to behavioral functions. New methods allow systematic classification of cell types, and provide genetic access to diverse neuronal types for studies of connectivity and neural coding during behavior. Here we evaluate key advances over the past decade and discuss future directions.

SummaryDopamine (DA) neurons in the midbrain ventral tegmental area (VTA) integrate complex inputs to encode multiple signals that influence motivated behaviors via diverse projections. Here, we combine axon-initiated viral transduction with rabies-mediated trans-synaptic tracing and Cre-based cell-type-specific targeting to systematically map input-output relationships of VTA-DA neurons. We found that VTA-DA (and VTA-GABA) neurons receive excitatory, inhibitory, and modulatory input from diverse sources. VTA-DA neurons projecting to different forebrain regions exhibit specific biases in their input selection. VTA-DA neurons projecting to lateral and medial nucleus accumbens innervate largely non-overlapping striatal targets, with the latter also sending extensive extra-striatal axon collaterals. Using electrophysiology and behavior, we validated new circuits identified in our tracing studies, including a previously unappreciated top-down reinforcing circuit from anterior cortex to lateral nucleus accumbens via VTA-DA neurons. This study highlights the utility of our viral-genetic tracing strategies to elucidate the complex neural substrates that underlie motivated behaviors.

To better understand the relationship between input and output connectivity for neurons of interest in specific brain regions, a viral-genetic tracing approach is used to identify input based on a combination of neurons’ projection and cell type, as illustrated in a study of locus coeruleus noradrenaline neurons. New circuit tracing techniques have steadily increased our knowledge of the connectivity between brain regions and how such links may contribute to function and information processing. Here, Liqun Luo and colleagues expand this toolbox to include TRIO, a new strategy designed to characterize the input–output relationships between genetically specified populations of neurons. As a proof of concept, input–output tracing relationships and projection patterns were completed for the noradrenaline neurons of the locus coeruleus. Deciphering how neural circuits are anatomically organized with regard to input and output is instrumental in understanding how the brain processes information. For example, locus coeruleus noradrenaline (also known as norepinephrine) (LC-NE) neurons receive input from and send output to broad regions of the brain and spinal cord, and regulate diverse functions including arousal, attention, mood and sensory gating1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8. However, it is unclear how LC-NE neurons divide up their brain-wide projection patterns and whether different LC-NE neurons receive differential input. Here we developed a set of viral-genetic tools to quantitatively analyse the input–output relationship of neural circuits, and applied these tools to dissect the LC-NE circuit in mice. Rabies-virus-based input mapping indicated that LC-NE neurons receive convergent synaptic input from many regions previously identified as sending axons to the locus coeruleus, as well as from newly identified presynaptic partners, including cerebellar Purkinje cells. The ‘tracing the relationship between input and output’ method (or TRIO method) enables trans-synaptic input tracing from specific subsets of neurons based on their projection and cell type. We found that LC-NE neurons projecting to diverse output regions receive mostly similar input. Projection-based viral labelling revealed that LC-NE neurons projecting to one output region also project to all brain regions we examined. Thus, the LC-NE circuit overall integrates information from, and broadcasts to, many brain regions, consistent with its primary role in regulating brain states. At the same time, we uncovered several levels of specificity in certain LC-NE sub-circuits. These tools for mapping output architecture and input–output relationship are applicable to other neuronal circuits and organisms. More broadly, our viral-genetic approaches provide an efficient intersectional means to target neuronal populations based on cell type and projection pattern.

An increasingly powerful approach for studying brain circuits relies on targeting genetically encoded sensors and effectors to specific cell types. However, current approaches for this are still limited in functionality and specificity. Here we utilize several intersectional strategies to generate multiple transgenic mouse lines expressing high levels of novel genetic tools with high specificity. We developed driver and double reporter mouse lines and viral vectors using the Cre/Flp and Cre/Dre double recombinase systems, and established a new, retargetable genomic locus, TIGRE, which allowed the generation of a large set of Cre/tTA dependent reporter lines expressing fluorescent proteins, genetically encoded calcium, voltage, or glutamate indicators, and optogenetic effectors, all at substantially higher levels than before. High functionality was shown in example mouse lines for GCaMP6, YCX2.60, VSFP Butterfly 1.2, and Jaws. These novel transgenic lines greatly expand the ability to monitor and manipulate neuronal activities with increased specificity.

Cortical neurons are often functionally heterogeneous even for molecularly defined subtypes. In sensory cortices, physiological responses to natural stimuli can be sparse and vary widely even for neighboring neurons. It is thus difficult to parse out circuits that encode specific stimuli for further experimentation. Here, we report the development of a Cre-reporter mouse that allows recombination for cellular labeling and genetic manipulation, and use it with an activity-dependent Fos-CreERT2 driver to identify functionally active circuits in the auditory cortex. In vivo targeted patch recordings validate our method for neurons responding to physiologically relevant natural sounds such as pup wriggling calls and ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs). Using this system to investigate cortical responses in postpartum mothers, we find a transient recruitment of neurons highly responsive to USVs. This subpopulation of neurons has distinct physiological properties that improve the coding efficiency for pup USV calls, implicating it as a unique signature in parental plasticity., Fos-CreER knock-in mice enable tagging of neurons that are activated within a distinct time window. Here, the authors develop a Cre reporter mouse with low baseline activation and use it to reveal the specific coding properties of auditory cortex neurons that are activated by pup calls in both naive mice and mothers.

Precise coordination of synaptic connections ensures proper information flow within circuits. The activity of presynaptic organizing molecules signaling to downstream pathways is essential for such coordination, though such entities remain incompletely known. We show that LRP4, a conserved transmembrane protein known for its postsynaptic roles, functions presynaptically as an organizing molecule. In the Drosophila brain, LRP4 localizes to the nerve terminals at or near active zones. Loss of presynaptic LRP4 reduces excitatory (not inhibitory) synapse number, impairs active zone architecture, and abolishes olfactory attraction - the latter of which can be suppressed by reducing presynaptic GABAB receptors. LRP4 overexpression increases synapse number in excitatory and inhibitory neurons, suggesting an instructive role and a common downstream synapse addition pathway. Mechanistically, LRP4 functions via the conserved kinase SRPK79D to ensure normal synapse number and behavior. This highlights a presynaptic function for LRP4, enabling deeper understanding of how synapse organization is coordinated. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.27347.001, eLife digest The connections between nerve cells, called synapses, often malfunction in disease, injury and during aging, and to understand how this happens we first need to know how they work normally. At a synapse, one nerve cell sends a signal to the other. The signal is a chemical substance, which binds to specialized proteins called receptors on the receiving nerve cell. At excitatory synapses, the chemical signal activates the receiver; at inhibitory synapses, it does the opposite. Communication at synapses typically only goes in one direction because the sender and receiver at a synapse are not interchangeable; they contain different molecules that support their distinct roles. To complicate matters, the same molecule may sometimes be present on both sides of a synapse with a different role in each. Moreover, not all synapses exist between two nerve cells; some synapses also form between nerve cells and muscle fibers to control the movement of the muscles. Mosca et al. set out to identify new players involved in forming synapses, and to identify differences in the formation of nerve cell-to-nerve cell versus nerve cell-to-muscle connections. Mosca et al. were interested in particular in a protein called LRP4. In mammals, LRP4 is largely present on the muscle side of nerve cell-to-muscle synapses, where it acts as a receptor for a chemical signal called Agrin. However, fruit flies — which lack Agrin – also possess the gene for LRP4, suggesting that it has other roles too. Mosca et al. now show that LRP4 is present in the nerve cell-to-nerve cell synapses found in the fruit fly’s brain. Further experiments reveal that fruit fly LRP4 plays an important role on the sender side of these synapses. Reducing the amount of LRP4 in the fruit fly brain reduces the number of excitatory, but not inhibitory, synapses. This suggests that fruit fly LRP4 may help regulate the formation of excitatory synapses. Understanding how synapses form, and the differences between excitatory and inhibitory connections, could provide new insights into disorders of impaired synapse formation such as schizophrenia. LRP4 has also been implicated in disorders, such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) and myasthenia gravis, in which impaired communication between nerves and muscles causes muscles to weaken. Improved understanding of how synapses work may lead to better drugs to treat these disorders. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.27347.002

Identification of sleep-active and sleep-promoting neurons in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus using neural projection tracing tools to target this population among a group of intermingled neurons, all with various functions. The preoptic area (POA) in the hypothalamus is an essential contributor to typical sleep regulation, but how this brain area is involved in this process has not been well-understood. Now, Yang Dan and colleagues dissect the role of sleep-active neurons in the POA using neural-projection-tracing tools to specifically target this population of neurons amongst a group of intermingled neurons with various functions. The POA sleep neurons were GABAergic and projected to the tuberomammillary nucleus and were not only active during sleep but could promote sleep when activated. Further, single-cell molecular analysis provided candidate genetic markers with which to target these neurons for future studies aiming to further dissect this sleep control circuit. In humans and other mammalian species, lesions in the preoptic area of the hypothalamus cause profound sleep impairment1,2,3,4,5, indicating a crucial role of the preoptic area in sleep generation. However, the underlying circuit mechanism remains poorly understood. Electrophysiological recordings and c-Fos immunohistochemistry have shown the existence of sleep-active neurons in the preoptic area, especially in the ventrolateral preoptic area and median preoptic nucleus6,7,8,9. Pharmacogenetic activation of c-Fos-labelled sleep-active neurons has been shown to induce sleep10. However, the sleep-active neurons are spatially intermingled with wake-active neurons6,7, making it difficult to target the sleep neurons specifically for circuit analysis. Here we identify a population of preoptic area sleep neurons on the basis of their projection target and discover their molecular markers. Using a lentivirus expressing channelrhodopsin-2 or a light-activated chloride channel for retrograde labelling, bidirectional optogenetic manipulation, and optrode recording, we show that the preoptic area GABAergic neurons projecting to the tuberomammillary nucleus are both sleep active and sleep promoting. Furthermore, translating ribosome affinity purification and single-cell RNA sequencing identify candidate markers for these neurons, and optogenetic and pharmacogenetic manipulations demonstrate that several peptide markers (cholecystokinin, corticotropin-releasing hormone, and tachykinin 1) label sleep-promoting neurons. Together, these findings provide easy genetic access to sleep-promoting preoptic area neurons and a valuable entry point for dissecting the sleep control circuit.

The human brain contains approximately 60 billion cerebellar granule cells, which outnumber all other brain neurons combined. Classical theories posit that a large, diverse population of granule cells allows for highly detailed representations of sensorimotor context, enabling downstream Purkinje cells to sense fine contextual changes. Although evidence suggests a role for the cerebellum in cognition, granule cells are known to encode only sensory and motor context. Here, using two-photon calcium imaging in behaving mice, we show that granule cells convey information about the expectation of reward. Mice initiated voluntary forelimb movements for delayed sugar-water reward. Some granule cells responded preferentially to reward or reward omission, whereas others selectively encoded reward anticipation. Reward responses were not restricted to forelimb movement, as a Pavlovian task evoked similar responses. Compared to predictable rewards, unexpected rewards elicited markedly different granule cell activity despite identical stimuli and licking responses. In both tasks, reward signals were widespread throughout multiple cerebellar lobules. Tracking the same granule cells over several days of learning revealed that cells with reward-anticipating responses emerged from those that responded at the start of learning to reward delivery, whereas reward-omission responses grew stronger as learning progressed. The discovery of predictive, non-sensorimotor encoding in granule cells is a major departure from the current understanding of these neurons and markedly enriches the contextual information available to postsynaptic Purkinje cells, with important implications for cognitive processing in the cerebellum.

SUMMARY The successful planning and execution of adaptive behaviors in mammals may require long-range coordination of neural networks throughout cerebral cortex. The neuronal implementation of signals that could orchestrate cortex-wide activity remains unclear. Here, we develop and apply methods for cortex-wide Ca2+ imaging in mice performing decision-making behavior and identify a global cortical representation of task engagement encoded in the activity dynamics of both single cells and superficial neuropil distributed across the majority of dorsal cortex. The activity of multiple molecularly defined cell types was found to reflect this representation with type-specific dynamics. Focal optogenetic inhibition tiled across cortex revealed a crucial role for frontal cortex in triggering this cortex-wide phenomenon; local inhibition of this region blocked both the cortex-wide response to task-initiating cues and the voluntary behavior. These findings reveal cell-type-specific processes in cortex for globally representing goal-directed behavior and identify a major cortical node that gates the global broadcast of task-related information.

The SALM5-HVEM interaction limits inflammation and contributes to immune privilege in the CNS., The central nervous system (CNS) is an immune-privileged organ with the capacity to prevent excessive inflammation. Aside from the blood-brain barrier, active immunosuppressive mechanisms remain largely unknown. We report that a neuron-specific molecule, synaptic adhesion-like molecule 5 (SALM5), is a crucial contributor to CNS immune privilege. We found that SALM5 suppressed lipopolysaccharide-induced inflammatory responses in the CNS and that a SALM-specific monoclonal antibody promoted inflammation in the CNS, and thereby aggravated clinical symptoms of mouse experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. In addition, we identified herpes virus entry mediator as a functional receptor that mediates SALM5’s suppressive function. Our findings reveal a molecular link between the neuronal system and the immune system, and provide potential therapeutic targets for the control of CNS diseases.

Two Drosophila Teneurin proteins, Ten-m and Ten-a, are shown to be required for neuromuscular synapse organization and target selection. Our molecular understanding of brain wiring has mostly concerned proteins implicated in axon guidance and large-scale dendritic-arborization development. In a pair of papers published this week, Liqun Luo and colleagues now show that two members of the Teneurin family of large transmembrane proteins control the final steps of neuronal targeting. The papers, which focus on the Drosophila olfactory systems and neuromuscular junctions respectively, indicate that Teneurins interact homophilically across the synaptic cleft to ensure proper matching among developing neurons. Synapse assembly requires trans-synaptic signals between the pre- and postsynapse1, but our understanding of the essential organizational molecules involved in this process remains incomplete2. Teneurin proteins are conserved, epidermal growth factor (EGF)-repeat-containing transmembrane proteins with large extracellular domains3. Here we show that two Drosophila Teneurins, Ten-m and Ten-a, are required for neuromuscular synapse organization and target selection. Ten-a is presynaptic whereas Ten-m is mostly postsynaptic; neuronal Ten-a and muscle Ten-m form a complex in vivo. Pre- or postsynaptic Teneurin perturbations cause severe synapse loss and impair many facets of organization trans-synaptically and cell autonomously. These include defects in active zone apposition, release sites, membrane and vesicle organization, and synaptic transmission. Moreover, the presynaptic microtubule and postsynaptic spectrin cytoskeletons are severely disrupted, suggesting a mechanism whereby Teneurins organize the cytoskeleton, which in turn affects other aspects of synapse development. Supporting this, Ten-m physically interacts with α-Spectrin. Genetic analyses of teneurin and neuroligin reveal that they have differential roles that synergize to promote synapse assembly. Finally, at elevated endogenous levels, Ten-m regulates target selection between specific motor neurons and muscles. Our study identifies the Teneurins as a key bi-directional trans-synaptic signal involved in general synapse organization, and demonstrates that proteins such as these can also regulate target selection.

SummaryCoordinated migration of newly born neurons to their prospective target laminae is a prerequisite for neural circuit assembly in the developing brain. The evolutionarily conserved LIS1/NDEL1 complex is essential for neuronal migration in the mammalian cerebral cortex. The cytoplasmic nature of LIS1 and NDEL1 proteins suggest that they regulate neuronal migration cell autonomously. Here, we extend mosaic analysis with double markers (MADM) to mouse chromosome 11 where Lis1, Ndel1, and 14-3-3ɛ (encoding a LIS1/NDEL1 signaling partner) are located. Analyses of sparse and uniquely labeled mutant cells in mosaic animals reveal distinct cell-autonomous functions for these three genes. Lis1 regulates neuronal migration efficiency in a dose-dependent manner, while Ndel1 is essential for a specific, previously uncharacterized, late step of neuronal migration: entry into the target lamina. Comparisons with previous genetic perturbations of Lis1 and Ndel1 also suggest a surprising degree of cell-nonautonomous function for these proteins in regulating neuronal migration.

The dorsal raphe (DR) constitutes a major serotonergic input to the forebrain and modulates diverse functions and brain states, including mood, anxiety, and sensory and motor functions. Most functional studies to date have treated DR serotonin neurons as a single population. Using viral-genetic methods, we found that subcortical- and cortical-projecting serotonin neurons have distinct cell-body distributions within the DR and differentially co-express a vesicular glutamate transporter. Further, amygdala- and frontal-cortex-projecting DR serotonin neurons have largely complementary whole-brain collateralization patterns, receive biased inputs from presynaptic partners, and exhibit opposite responses to aversive stimuli. Gain- and loss-of-function experiments suggest that amygdala-projecting DR serotonin neurons promote anxiety-like behavior, whereas frontal-cortex-projecting neurons promote active coping in the face of challenge. These results provide compelling evidence that the DR serotonin system contains parallel sub-systems that differ in input and output connectivity, physiological response properties, and behavioral functions.

Parkinson's disease is characterized by the progressive loss of midbrain dopamine neurons. Dopamine replacement therapy with levodopa alleviates parkinsonian motor symptoms but is complicated by the development of involuntary movements, termed levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID). Aberrant activity in the striatum has been hypothesized to cause LID. Here, to establish a direct link between striatal activity and dyskinesia, we combine optogenetics and a method to manipulate dyskinesia-associated neurons, targeted recombination in active populations (TRAP). We find that TRAPed cells are a stable subset of sensorimotor striatal neurons, predominantly from the direct pathway, and that reactivation of TRAPed striatal neurons causes dyskinesia in the absence of levodopa. Inhibition of TRAPed cells, but not a nonspecific subset of direct pathway neurons, ameliorates LID. These results establish that a distinct subset of striatal neurons is causally involved in LID and indicate that successful therapeutic strategies for treating LID may require targeting functionally selective neuronal subtypes.

Numb can antagonize Notch signaling to diversify the fates of sister cells. We report here that paired sister cells acquire different fates in all three Drosophila neuronal lineages that make diverse types of antennal lobe projection neurons (PNs). Only one in each pair of postmitotic neurons survives into the adult stage in both anterodorsal (ad) and ventral (v) PN lineages. Notably, Notch signaling specifies the PN fate in the vPN lineage but promotes programmed cell death in the missing siblings in the adPN lineage. In addition, Notch/Numb-mediated binary sibling fates underlie the production of PNs and local interneurons from common precursors in the lAL lineage. Furthermore, Numb is needed in the lateral but not adPN or vPN lineages to prevent the appearance of ectopic neuroblasts and to ensure proper self-renewal of neural progenitors. These lineage-specific outputs of Notch/Numb signaling show that a universal mechanism of binary fate decision can be utilized to govern diverse neural sibling differentiations.

SummaryN-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs) play important functions in neural development. NR2B is the predominant NR2 subunit of NMDAR in the developing brain. Here we use mosaic analysis with double markers (MADM) to knock out NR2B in isolated single cells and analyze its cell-autonomous function in dendrite development. NR2B mutant dentate gyrus granule cells (dGCs) and barrel cortex layer 4 spiny stellate cells (bSCs) have similar dendritic growth rates, total length, and branch number as control cells. However, mutant dGCs maintain supernumerary primary dendrites resulting from a pruning defect. Furthermore, while control bSCs restrict dendritic growth to a single barrel, mutant bSCs maintain dendritic growth in multiple barrels. Thus, NR2B functions cell autonomously to regulate dendrite patterning to ensure that sensory information is properly represented in the cortex. Our study also indicates that molecular mechanisms that regulate activity-dependent dendrite patterning can be separated from those that control general dendrite growth and branching.

Drosophila mushroom body (MB) {gamma} neurons undergo axon pruning during metamorphosis through a process of localized degeneration of specific axon branches. Developmental axon degeneration is initiated by the steroid hormone ecdysone, acting through a nuclear receptor complex composed of USP (ultraspiracle) and EcRB1 (ecdysone receptor B1) to regulate gene expression in MB {gamma} neurons. To identify ecdysone-dependent gene expression changes in MB {gamma} neurons at the onset of axon pruning, we use laser capture microdissection to isolate wild-type and mutant MB neurons in which EcR (ecdysone receptor) activity is genetically blocked, and analyze expression changes by microarray. We identify several molecular pathways that are regulated in MB neurons by ecdysone. The most striking observation is the upregulation of genes involved in the UPS (ubiquitin–proteasome system), which is cell autonomously required for {gamma} neuron pruning. In addition, we characterize the function of Boule, an evolutionarily conserved RNA-binding protein previously implicated in spermatogenesis in flies and vertebrates. boule expression is downregulated by ecdysone in MB neurons at the onset of pruning, and forced expression of Boule in MB {gamma} neurons is sufficient to inhibit axon pruning. This activity is dependent on the RNA-binding domain of Boule and a conserved DAZ (deleted in azoospermia) domain implicated in interactions with other RNA-binding proteins. However, loss of Boule does not result in obvious defects in axon pruning or morphogenesis of MB neurons, suggesting that it acts redundantly with other ecdyonse-regulated genes. We propose a novel function for Boule in the CNS as a negative regulator of developmental axon pruning.

Understanding the principles of information processing in neural circuits requires systematic characterization of the participating cell types and their connections, and the ability to measure and perturb their activity. Genetic approaches promise to bring experimental access to complex neural systems, including genetic stalwarts such as the fly and mouse, but also to nongenetic systems such as primates. Together with anatomical and physiological methods, cell-type-specific expression of protein markers and sensors and transducers will be critical to construct circuit diagrams and to measure the activity of genetically defined neurons. Inactivation and activation of genetically defined cell types will establish causal relationships between activity in specific groups of neurons, circuit function, and animal behavior. Genetic analysis thus promises to reveal the logic of the neural circuits in complex brains that guide behaviors. Here we review progress in the genetic analysis of neural circuits and discuss directions for future research and development.

The Golgi staining method has served neuroscience well for more than a century. In this assay I review recent progresses using genetic methods to recapitulate and extend the Golgi staining method. These methods enable new discoveries on organization and development of neuronal circuits in the fly and mouse brains.

We identified a mutation in Aats-gly (also known as gars or glycyl-tRNA synthetase), the Drosophila melanogaster ortholog of the human GARS gene that is associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy type 2D (CMT2D), from a mosaic genetic screen. Loss of gars in Drosophila neurons preferentially affects the elaboration and stability of terminal arborization of axons and dendrites. The human and Drosophila genes each encode both a cytoplasmic and a mitochondrial isoform. Using additional mutants that selectively disrupt cytoplasmic or mitochondrial protein translation, we found that cytoplasmic protein translation is required for terminal arborization of both dendrites and axons during development. In contrast, disruption of mitochondrial protein translation preferentially affects the maintenance of dendritic arborization in adults. We also provide evidence that human GARS shows equivalent functions in Drosophila, and that CMT2D causal mutations show loss-of-function properties. Our study highlights different demands of protein translation for the development and maintenance of axons and dendrites.

The brain has a limited capacity to self-protect against protein aggregate-associated pathology, and mounting evidence supports a role for phagocytic glia in this process. We have established a Drosophila model to investigate the role of phagocytic glia in clearance of neuronal mutant huntingtin (Htt) aggregates associated with Huntington disease. We find that glia regulate steady-state numbers of Htt aggregates expressed in neurons through a clearance mechanism that requires the glial scavenger receptor Draper and downstream phagocytic engulfment machinery. Remarkably, some of these engulfed neuronal Htt aggregates effect prion-like conversion of soluble, wild-type Htt in the glial cytoplasm. We provide genetic evidence that this conversion depends strictly on the Draper signalling pathway, unveiling a previously unanticipated role for phagocytosis in transfer of pathogenic protein aggregates in an intact brain. These results suggest a potential mechanism by which phagocytic glia contribute to both protein aggregate-related neuroprotection and pathogenesis in neurodegenerative disease.

The olfactory system discriminates a large number of odorants using precisely wired neural circuits. It offers an excellent opportunity to study mechanisms of neuronal wiring specificity at the single synapse level. Each olfactory receptor neuron typically expresses only one olfactory receptor from many receptor genes (1000 in mice). In mice, this striking singularity appears to be ensured by a negative feedback mechanism. Olfactory receptor neurons expressing the same receptor converge their axons to stereotypical positions with high precision, a feature that is conserved from insects to mammals. Several molecules have recently been identified that control this process, including olfactory receptors themselves in mice. The second order neurons, mitral cells in mammals and projection neurons in insects, have a similar degree of wiring specificity: studies in Drosophila suggest that projection neuron-intrinsic mechanisms regulate their precise dendritic targeting. Finally, recent studies have revealed interactions of different cell types during circuit assembly, including axon-axon interactions among olfactory receptor neurons and dendro-dendritic interactions of projection neurons, that are essential in establishing wiring specificity of the olfactory circuit.

Drosophila RacGAP50C and its homologues act as part of a complex with a kinesin-like protein (Pavarotti/Zen-4) that is essential for the formation of the central spindle and completion of cytokinesis [Mishima, M., Kaitna, S. & Glotzer, M. (2002) Dev. Cell 2, 41–54; Somers, W. G. & Saint, R. (2003) Dev. Cell 4, 29–39; Jantsch-Plunger et al. (2000) J. Cell Biol. 149, 1391–1404]. We report here that RacGAP50C corresponds to the tumbleweed ( tum ) gene previously identified based on its defects in dendrite development of sensory neurons [Gao, F. B., Brenman, J. E., Jan, L. Y. & Jan, Y. N. (1999) Genes Dev. 13, 2549–2561]. Using mushroom body neurogenesis and morphogenesis as a model, we show that Tumbleweed (Tum), Pavarotti, and their association are required for neuroblast proliferation. Tum with a mutation predicted to disrupt the GTPase-activating protein (GAP) activity still largely retains its activity in regulating cell division but is impaired in its activity to limit axon growth. We also provide evidence that Tum and Pavarotti regulate the subcellular localization of each other in postmitotic neurons and that cytoplasmic accumulation of both proteins disrupts axon development in a GAP-dependent manner. Taken together with previous studies of RacGAP50C in regulating cytokinesis, we propose that Tum serves as a scaffolding protein in regulating cell division but acts as a GAP to limit axon growth in postmitotic neurons.

Neural circuits are often remodeled after initial connections are established. The mechanisms by which remodeling occurs, in particular whether and how synaptically connected neurons coordinate their reorganization, are poorly understood. In Drosophila, olfactory projection neurons (PNs)receive input by synapsing with olfactory receptor neurons in the antennal lobe and relay information to the mushroom body (MB) calyx and lateral horn. Here we show that embryonic-born PNs participate in both the larval and adult olfactory circuits. In the larva, these neurons generally innervate a single glomerulus in the antennal lobe and one or two glomerulus-like substructures in the MB calyx. They persist in the adult olfactory circuit and are prespecified by birth order to innervate a subset of glomeruli distinct from larval-born PNs. Developmental studies indicate that these neurons undergo stereotyped pruning of their dendrites and axon terminal branches locally during early metamorphosis. Electron microscopy analysis reveals that these PNs synapse with MB γ neurons in the larval calyx and that these synaptic profiles are engulfed by glia during early metamorphosis. As with MBγ neurons, PN pruning requires cell-autonomous reception of the nuclear hormone ecdysone. Thus, these synaptic partners are independently programmed to prune their dendrites and axons.

The study of dendritic development in CNS neurons has been hampered by a lack of complex dendritic structures that can be studied in a tractable genetic system. In an effort to develop such a system, we recently characterized the highly complex dendrites of the vertical system (VS) neurons in the Drosophila visual system. Using VS neurons as a model system, we show here using loss-of-function mutations that endogenous Cdc42, a member of Rho family of small GTPases, is required for multiple aspects of dendritic morphogenesis. Cdc42-mutant VS neurons display normal complexity but increased dendritic length compared with wild type and have defects in dendrite caliber and stereotyped dendritic branch positions. Remarkably, Cdc42 mutant neurons also show a 50% reduction in dendritic spine density. These results demonstrate that Cdc42 is a regulator for multiple aspects of dendritic development.