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Insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) and myostatin have opposing roles in regulating the growth and size of skeletal muscle, with IGF1 stimulating, and myostatin inhibiting, growth. However, it remains unclear whether these proteins have mutually dependent, or independent, roles. To clarify this issue, we crossed myostatin null ( Mstn -/- ) mice with mice overexpressing Igf1 in skeletal muscle ( Igf1 + ) to generate six genotypes of male mice; wild type ( Mstn +/+ ), Mstn +/- , Mstn -/- , Mstn +/+ :Igf1 + , Mstn +/- :Igf1 + and Mstn -/- :Igf1 + Overexpression of Igf1 increased the mass of mixed fibre type muscles (e.g. Quadriceps femoris ) by 19% over Mstn +/+ , 33% over Mstn +/- and 49% over Mstn -/- ( P  < 0.001). By contrast, the mass of the gonadal fat pad was correspondingly reduced with the removal of Mstn and addition of Igf1 Myostatin regulated the number, while IGF1 regulated the size of myofibres, and the deletion of Mstn and Igf1 + independently increased the proportion of fast type IIB myosin heavy chain isoforms in T. anterior (up to 10% each, P  < 0.001). The abundance of AKT and rpS6 was increased in muscles of Mstn -/- mice , while phosphorylation of AKT S473 was increased in Igf1 + mice ( Mstn +/+ :Igf1 + , Mstn +/- :Igf1 + and Mstn -/- :Igf1 + ). Our results demonstrate that a greater than additive effect is observed on the growth of skeletal muscle and in the reduction of body fat when myostatin is absent and IGF1 is in excess. Finally, we show that myostatin and IGF1 regulate skeletal muscle size, myofibre type and gonadal fat through distinct mechanisms that involve increasing the total abundance and phosphorylation status of AKT and rpS6., (© 2017 Society for Endocrinology.)

The objective of this study was to determine the association between intracellular free AA (FAA) profiles in skeletal muscle with muscle growth in twin and singleton fetuses in late pregnancy and at weaning, under an ad libitum feeding regime of the dam. Plasma from singleton- (n = 9) and twin-bearing (n = 10) ewes at d 140 of pregnancy and FAA in the semitendinosus muscle (STM) from the corresponding fetuses were studied. At weaning, intracellular STM FAA concentrations were compared between twins at the same age as singletons (Twin(age); n = 17) and at the same weight as singletons (Twin(wt); n = 17) to that of singletons (n = 20). Twin fetuses were 15% lighter (P = 0.03) with a 20% lighter STM (P = 0.02) compared to singletons. Maternal plasma FAA were similar (P ≥ 0.17) between singleton- and twin-bearing ewes. Twin fetuses had greater (P < 0.05) plasma concentrations of glutamine, histidine, and methionine and lower (P < 0.05) concentrations of aspartate, citrulline, glutamate, and ornithine compared with singletons. In fetal STM, twins had lower (P < 0.05) concentrations of aspartate and valine and greater (P < 0.01) concentration of methionine. Correlations were found between fetal STM weight and intracellular concentrations of arginine (r = 0.66, P < 0.01) and glutamine (r = 0.49, P < 0.01). Compared to singletons at weaning, Twin(age) were 16% lighter (P < 0.01) and the STM weight was proportionately 16% lighter (P < 0.01). For Twin(wt), the magnitude of the difference for STM weight was reduced to 8% lighter (P = 0.02). Compared to singletons, Twin(age) lambs had greater (P < 0.05) intracellular concentrations of glutamine, histidine, threonine, asparagine, alanine, serine, and glutamate but reduced taurine. The differences in FAA concentrations were less between Twin(wt) and singletons than between Twin(age) and singletons. Positive correlations were found between leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, proline, threonine, and tyrosine muscle concentration and STM weight at weaning. Males differed from females in intracellular FAA both in late pregnancy and at weaning. Twins had reduced RNA content during pregnancy and at weaning, suggesting a lower capacity for protein accretion. These data suggest that specific FAA concentrations are associated with differences in muscle growth during late pregnancy, notably arginine and glutamine, and reduced protein synthesis capacity. However, the relevance of specific FAA varies according to stage of development and sex of the lamb.

Skeletal muscles of myostatin null (Mstn(-/-)) mice are more susceptible to atrophy during hind limb suspension (HS) than are muscles of wild-type mice. Here we sought to elucidate the mechanism for this susceptibility and to determine if Mstn(-/-) mice can regain muscle mass after HS. Male Mstn(-/-) and wild-type mice were subjected to 0, 2 or 7 days of HS or 7 days of HS followed by 1, 3 or 7 days of reloading (n = 6 per group). Mstn(-/-) mice lost more mass from muscles expressing the fast type IIb myofibres during HS and muscle mass was recovered in both genotypes after reloading for 7 days. Concentrations of MAFbx and MuRF1 mRNA, crucial ligases regulating the ubiquitin-proteasome system, but not MUSA1, a BMP-regulated ubiquitin ligase, were increased more in muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice, compared with wild-type mice, during HS and concentrations decreased in both genotypes during reloading. Similarly, concentrations of LC3b, Gabarapl1 and Atg4b, key effectors of the autophagy-lysosomal system, were increased further in muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice, compared with wild-type mice, during HS and decreased in both genotypes during reloading. There was a greater abundance of 4E-BP1 and more bound to eIF4E in muscles of Mstn(-/-) compared with wild-type mice (P<0.001). The ratio of phosphorylated to total eIF2α increased during HS and decreased during reloading, while the opposite pattern was observed for rpS6. Concentrations of myogenic regulatory factors (MyoD, Myf5 and myogenin) mRNA were increased during HS in muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice compared with controls (P<0.001). We attribute the susceptibility of skeletal muscles of Mstn(-/-) mice to atrophy during HS to an up- and downregulation, respectively, of the mechanisms regulating atrophy of myofibres and translation of mRNA. These processes are reversed during reloading to aid a faster rate of recovery of muscle mass in Mstn(-/-) mice.