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There is some, albeit inconsistent, evidence supporting sex differences in preschoolers' motor competence (MC), with these observations not uniform when analyzed by age, and cultural groups. Thus, this study examined sex differences across ages in 3- to 5-year-old children's MC. A cross-country pooled sample of 6241 children aged 3-5 years (49.6% girls) was assessed for MC using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd/3rd edition, and children were categorized into groups of age in months. Multiple linear regression models and predictive margins were calculated to explore how sex and age in months affect scores of MC (i.e., locomotor and ball skills), with adjustments for country and BMI. The Chow's Test was used to test for the presence of a structural break in the data. Significant differences in favor of girls were seen at 57-59 and 66-68 months of age for locomotor skills; boys performed better in ball skills in all age periods, except for 42-44 and 45-47 months of age. The higher marginal effects were observed for the period between 45-47 and 48-50 months for locomotor skills (F = 30.21; and F = 25.90 for girls and boys, respectively), and ball skills (F = 19.01; and F = 42.11 for girls and boys, respectively). A significantly positive break point was seen at 45-47 months, highlighting the age interval where children's MC drastically improved. The identification of this breakpoint provides an evidence-based metric for when we might expect MC to rapidly increase, and an indicator of early delay when change does not occur at that age., (© 2024 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Background: Few studies have examined the relationship between motor skill competence and device-measured physical activity in large samples and none have used non-linear modelling. This study assessed the linear and non-linear associations between motor skill competence and physical activity in children using pooled data from eight studies., Methods: Cross-sectional ActiGraph accelerometer and motor skills competence data from 988 children (50.8% boys) aged 3-11 years were included. Total, object control and locomotor skill competence were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Skill Development. Linear mixed models were fitted to examine linear associations between motor skill competence and physical activity. Then, restricted cubic splines models were used to assess potential non-linear relationships. Interactions by sex and age were assessed., Results: There was evidence of positive linear associations between total skill, and object control and locomotor skills, with moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity; however, the associations with total skill competence and object control better fitted a non-linear model. Non-linear models indicated associations were positive but relatively weak in the low to mid ranges of TGMD/object control scores but at high ranges (~ > 70 out of 100/ and ~ 35 out of 50) the association strength increased for both moderate- and vigorous-intensity physical activity. There were sex interactions for locomotor skills only, specifically for vigorous activity with boys having a stronger positive association than girls., Conclusions: There appears to be a threshold for object control skill proficiency that children need to reach to enhance their physical activity levels which provides support for a motor skill "proficiency barrier". This provides a tangible benchmark for children to achieve in motor competence programs., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Background: Motor competence has important developmental associations with aspects of physical health, but there has been no synthesis of longitudinal associations with cognitive and social-emotional health., Objectives: The first aim was to present a conceptual model that positions motor competence as a mediator between physical activity and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. The second aim was to synthesize the association of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development using longitudinal observational and experimental evidence, in particular to (i) identify the role of task, individual, and environmental characteristics in moderating the association between motor and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes and (ii) synthesize the strength of evidence pertaining to domain-specific relationships., Methods: This systematic review was registered with the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO) and adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) statement for reporting systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Five electronic databases (PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, PsycINFO, and SPORTDiscus) were systematically searched. Following study screening and risk-of-bias assessment by two authors, 49 eligible studies were identified for inclusion and grouped by study design. Evidence for domain-specific paths between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes was synthesized by calculating the significant analyses in the hypothesized direction, divided by the total number of analyses for that path. These percentages were then collated for each domain outcome. This collated influence was classified as either no association (0-33%), written as '0', or indeterminate/inconsistent (34-59%), written as '?' If there were fewer than three studies in the domain, the strength of evidence was classified as insufficient (I)., Results: Of the 49 studies, 35% were able to satisfy six or more of the seven risk-of-bias criteria. Longitudinal observational evidence about domain-specific and global associations of motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional development is indeterminate. The included studies also did not provide evidence for a consistent moderating role of age and sex. Some preliminary experimental evidence does support the role of motor competence in moderating the influence of cognitively enriched physical activity on cognitive outcomes, especially working memory and social-emotional skills. However, too few studies were appropriately designed to acknowledge the moderating role of contextual mechanisms., Conclusions: Between-study heterogeneity means it was not possible to identify definitive domain- and construct-specific relationships between motor competence and cognitive and social-emotional outcomes. To further develop our understanding, it is important that researchers acknowledge the complexity of these relationships within rigorous study designs., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

Background and Objective: One in five preschool children are overweight/obese, and increased weight status over time increases the risks of poorer future health. Motor skill competence may be a protective factor, giving children the ability to participate in health-enhancing physical activity. Yet, we do not know when the relationship between motor competence and weight status first emerges or whether it is evident across the body mass index (BMI) spectrum. This study examined the association between motor skill competence and BMI in a multi-country sample of 5545 preschoolers (54.36 ± 9.15 months of age; 50.5% boys) from eight countries., Methods: Quantile regression analyses were used to explore the associations between motor skill competence (assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development, Second/Third Edition) and quantiles of BMI (15th; 50th; 85th; and 97th percentiles), adjusted for sex, age in months, and country., Results: Negative associations of locomotor skills, ball skills, and overall motor skill competence with BMI percentiles (p < 0.005) were seen, which became stronger at the higher end of the BMI distribution (97th percentile). Regardless of sex, for each raw score point increase in locomotor skills, ball skills, and overall motor skill competence scores, BMI is reduced by 8.9%, 6.8%, and 5.1%, respectively, for those preschoolers at the 97th BMI percentile onwards., Conclusions: Public health policies should position motor skill competence as critical for children's obesity prevention from early childhood onwards. Robust longitudinal and experimental designs are encouraged to explore a possible causal pathway between motor skill competence and BMI from early childhood., (© 2023. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature Switzerland AG.)

The study aims were to (1) identify perceived motor competence (PMC) and actual motor competence (AMC) profiles in children at two time points (early and middle childhood) 3 years apart, (2) explore transitions between the profiles from T1 to T2, and (3) investigate how PMC-AMC profiles at T1 differ in their mean values for AMC and PMC variables at T2. PMC was assessed by the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for young children (PMSC). At T1, AMC was measured with Test of Gross Motor Development-third version (TGMD-3), and at T2, a shortened TGMD-3 was used. To identify the PMC-AMC profiles using latent profile analysis, the Mplus statistical package (version 8.7) was used. For aim 3, the Bolck-Croon-Hagenaars (BCH) method was used. There were 480 children (mean age 6.26 years, 51.9% boys) at T1, 647 children (mean age 8.76 years, 48.8% boys) at T2 (some children were too young to have the PMC assessment at T1), and 292 at both time points. For aim 1, three profiles were identified at each time point for each gender. Boys had two realistic profiles with medium and low levels of PMC-AMC, and an overestimation profile. Girls had a medium realistic profile, an overestimation, and an underestimation profile. The PMC-AMC profile in early childhood predicted the PMC-AMC profile (aim 2) and AMC and PMC variables (aim 3) in middle childhood, especially if a child had low PMC in early childhood. Children with low PMC in early childhood are at risk of low PMC and less AMC development in middle childhood., (© 2023 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Promoting swimming and water safety is an important public health issue. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence (PSPWC) requires children to indicate their perceived competence using three difficulty levels for 17 swimming scenarios. The aim was to purposefully select four critical scenarios of the PSPWC to create the PSPWC-short form and test for associations with actual swim competence. Four of 17 scenarios were selected and extended to a four-point response scale by adding an extra difficulty level. Parents whose children had participated in at least 1-week swim-intensive programme in 2021 were invited to participate in the study, and perceptions of 139 children (mean age 6.9 years, SD = 1.9) were matched with certificate data of actual swim competence pre- (n = 139) and post-programme (n = 29). Moderate positive correlations were found between swim level at programme start and perception of: retrieving an object in deep water ( rho  = 0.57), swimming on front ( rho  = 0.60), swimming on back ( rho  = 0.69), treading water ( rho  = 0.63) and the summed score of all four ( rho  = 0.71). After adjusting for sex and age, higher perceived skill was still significantly associated with increasing achieved skill levels. The PSPWC-short form appears to provide a valid measure to be used as a brief screening assessment.

Being and perceiving oneself as proficient in motor skills seems essential for an active lifestyle; conversely, being active and perceiving oneself as proficient may be associated with greater motor competence. By expanding the causal path view about the relationship between active and healthy developmental system elements, this study tested the mediation hypothesis of perceived motor competence in the relationship between motor competence and physical activity - in both ways - and moderation by developmental phase and sex. This cross-sectional study sampled healthy schoolchildren (n = 379; 8.2 ± 1.7 years; 54.9% boys). Physical activity (questionnaire), motor competence (tests included locomotor and object control skills) and perception of motor competence (a pictorial scale) were assessed. Maximum likelihood structural equation models with fit statistics confirmed the mediation in both ways. Unexpectedly, the relationship between motor competence and physical activity was inverse. Sex was a moderating variable (boys). In a systemic relational paradigm of human development, perceived motor competence, motor competence, and physical activity interact in an active and healthy behavioural system, but the complexities of understanding how these elements relate to one another across childhood point to the need for future longitudinal studies.

The study aims were to 1) examine profiles of perception of motor competence (PMC) in relation to actual motor competence (AMC), i.e. under-estimators (UEs), realistic estimators (REs) and over-estimators (OEs) and 2) investigate associations between the profiles and selected socioecological factors at the individual, family and environmental levels. PMC (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence) and AMC (Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition) were administered to a representative sample of children from 37 childcare centres in Finland (n=441;6.2±0.6yrs;52% boys). Socioecological factors were investigated using a parental questionnaire. The three profiles were formed based on age- and gender-adjusted PMC and AMC z-scores. Multinomial logistic regression showed that OEs (n=81; p=0.04) tended to be younger than REs (n=306; p=0.04) and UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Parents of OEs reported more child health and developmental issues than parents of REs (p=0.03). Parents of UEs self-reported providing more support for physical activity than parents' of REs (p=0.04). REs tended to live in denser population areas than UEs (n=54; p=0.03). Whilst PMC profiles revealed some socioecological differences, future research needs to focus on a broader range of potential correlates and untangle methodological analyses challenges to deepen the knowledge about PMC development in children.

As drowning is a leading cause of unintentional injury/death in children worldwide, perceptions of their actual aquatic skills are of critical importance. Children's self-perceptions may influence the risks they take, and parental perceptions may influence the degree of supervision deemed to be necessary for children in and around water. Accordingly, we examined the differences between young children's actual, self-perceived and parent-perceived aquatic skills. Using a three-way repeated measures ANCOVA, we analyzed data from 134 child-parent dyads (56.0% boys; M age = 7.1, SD  = 1.1 years; and 71.6% mothers). We measured self and parental perceptions of the child's aquatic skills with the 'Pictorial Scale of Perceived Water Competence' (PSPWC), and we applied the exact same 17 test items of the PSPWC to assess the child's actual aquatic skill level in the water. Controlling for years of swimming school experience, within-subject differences between the total scores on the 'Actual Aquatic Skills Test' (AAST) and both the child- and parent-completed PSPWC indicated lower than actual estimates of the children's aquatic skill level. The degree of disagreement against the AAST was more pronounced in parents than in 6-7 year-old children but was similar between parents and 8-9 year-old children, with these patterns being evident regardless of the children's sex. Our study contributes to an ongoing validation of the PSPWC and represents a key advance in assessing and comparing children's actual and perceived aquatic skill competence, using perfectly aligned instruments. Future research and practice might explore children's actual aquatic skills in different contexts (e.g., open water), include perspectives of non-parent caregivers and assess perceived and actual water competence across development.

Perceived motor competence (PMC) is important to health as it mediates the association between actual motor competence (AMC) and physical activity. Many instruments assess the broader construct of physical self-perception but no scale has been developed to assess PMC in stability. The aim of this study was to develop and analyze the reliability and validity of a new pictorial PMC in stability skill assessment when completed by early adolescents. A Delphi method showed ≥70% of experts' consensus in the seven proposed items. A sample of 904 students (11-14 years old) self-reported PMC in locomotion, object control, and stability using two pictorial scales: Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC) and the newly developed Stability (PMSC&#95;Stability). The Körperkoordinations test for Kinder (KTK) was also administered as a measure of AMC in skills that utilize stability. Two different subsamples were randomly assigned to criterion validity and reliability assessments. Spearman's correlation, confirmatory factor analysis, and a general linear model for sex and age were conducted. The internal consistency (α) and test-retest (intraclass correlation coefficient) reliability values were good (>0.70). A single-factor latent model represented stability and did not differ by sex. Stability perception was associated with AMC (rho = 0.51). Stability is important to the performance of many movement skills (eg, single-leg balance or moving on a narrow surface). Understanding which adolescents have poor stability perception could highlight stability as an area that needs targeting in order to increase physical activity and sport participation., (© 2021 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Longitudinal designs enhance our understanding of children's development and its influence on movement behaviors and health. This three-year follow-up study aimed to develop profiles according to perceived and actual motor competence (MC) (locomotion, object control, and overall) and physical fitness in boys and girls longitudinally including children's temporal migrations among clusters in terms of profiling trends. A secondary aim was to compare physical activity participation and weight status at each time point according to these profiles. One hundred and four typically developing Spanish children (45.8% girls) between 4 and 9 years old at baseline participated in this study. Data were collected at three time points one year apart, between January 2016 and May 2018. A self-organizing map and K-means cluster analysis were used to classify and visualize the values and temporal trajectories longitudinally. The study of the profiles in three consecutive years revealed five profiles, three for boys [ie, profile 1 (aligned-high), profile 2 (aligned-partially-low perception-medium actual MC and fitness), and profile 3 (non-aligned-medium perception-low actual MC and fitness)]; and two for girls [ie, profile 4 (aligned-high) and profile 5 (aligned-low)]. For highly perceived and capable children, boys (profile 1) and girls (profile 4), there was a tendency for higher physical activity participation and lower body mass index and waist circumference over time compared to their counterparts who had medium and/or low levels in perception and actual MC and fitness (P < .05). As children age, those with low values in perceived and actual MC and fitness in object control skills will present a higher probability of maintaining unhealthy lifestyles. So, prior intervention, children's profiles identification should be analyzed according to the type of MC., (© 2020 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Aims: This study aimed to predict the variation in future fundamental movement skills (FMS), physical activity (PA) and body mass index (BMI) from prior FMS, PA, and BMI in British pre-schoolers., Methods: British pre-schoolers (n = 177) underwent assessment of FMS, via the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2), BMI, and PA, via accelerometer at two time points one year apart. Regression analysis was used to predict the change in PA and BMI in Year 2 from FMS variables in Year 1 and Year 2., Results: Variation in FMS performance between individuals predicted a significant amount of change in BMI, with 12.3 and 9.8% of the change in Year 2 BMI data explained by change in Year 1 and Year 2 FMS data, respectively. Change in FMS performance between individuals predicted a significant amount of change in PA, but was better at predicting change in sedentary activity rather than light or moderate-vigorous activities. A combination of run, throw, dribble, and kick performance predicted 46.1% of the change in sedentary activity between individuals in the 2nd year of testing., Conclusions: FMS mastery at four years of age predicts children's BMI and time spent sedentary at five years of age., (© 2020 The Authors. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

To have population-level impact, interventions must be effectively implemented and sustained under real-world conditions. Few Fundamental Movement Skill (FMS) interventions are implemented at scale, and even fewer are sustained in a way that allows for ongoing evaluation. There has been increasing recognition of applying systems thinking to investigate the multitude of influences on interventions. To improve research-practice translations, investigations need to incorporate synthesised perspective and collective input from intervention stakeholders. This study trials Collective Intelligence (CI) - an applied systems science approach - to understand barriers to the adoption, implementation and institutionalisation of effective FMS interventions for children and adolescents. A total of 58 barriers were generated and organised into 13 barrier categories. Participants voted to select 10 critical barriers and generated a structural map among the barriers to guide future action mapping. Barriers related to Government and Institutional factors and Curricular Conflicts were structured as fundamental drivers of the system of barriers. By presenting this application example, we aim to underline the considerations and alleviate barriers to conducting much needed implementation and sustainability studies in FMS interventions. CI also adds to the "tool box" to understand the complexity and functioning of public health interventions, such as those targeting physical activity behaviours.

A positive perception of motor skills is important for physical activity participation. The aim was to investigate which modifiable factors predict children's perceived motor skills. Mothers completed questionnaires when their child was 3.5 and 5 years old. At 5 years old, the children's perceived motor competence (PMC) was assessed. Separate linear regression models (up to 300 children) examined which factors at each time point predicted children's PMC, adjusted for relevant confounders. Multivariate models were then run with factors associated ( p < 0.10) with perception. At 3.5 years, the time spent with same age and older children (both higher tertiles) and parental physical activity facilitation (sum of facilitation in last month, e.g., taking child to park) were initially associated with higher perception. Dance/gymnastics participation were associated with lower perceptions. Other child behaviours, maternal beliefs, play equipment, and swimming lessons were non-significant. In the final prospective model ( n = 226), parental physical activity facilitation when child was 3.5 years old was the only factor to predict PMC. No factors were significant for the cross-sectional analyses at 5 years. Perceptions are formed based on past experiences which may explain why factors at 3.5 years rather than current experiences (when children were 5 years old) were associated with childhood perceptions.

Background: Actual and perceived motor competence are important correlates of various health-related behaviors. As such, numerous studies have examined the association between both constructs in children and adolescents., Objectives: The first aim of this review and meta-analysis was to systematically examine, analyze and summarize the scientific evidence on the relationship between actual and perceived motor competence (and by extension more general physical self-perception) in children, adolescents and young adults with typical and atypical development. The second aim was to examine several a priori determined potential moderators (i.e., age, sex, and developmental status of study participants, as well as level of alignment between measurement instruments) of the relationship between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception., Design: This systematic review was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement and was registered with PROSPERO on August 21st 2017., Data Sources: A systematic literature search of five electronic databases (i.e., MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science, PsycINFO and EMBASE) with no date restrictions was conducted., Eligibility Criteria for Selecting Studies: Eligibility criteria included (1) a study sample of youth aged 3-24 years, (2) an assessment of actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception, and (3) a report of the association between both, using a cross-sectional, longitudinal, or experimental design. Only original articles published in peer-reviewed journals with at least the title and abstract in English were considered., Analyses: Meta-analyses were conducted by type of actual motor competence (i.e., overall motor competence, locomotor, object control, stability/balance and sport-specific competence) through univariate and multivariable random-effects meta-regression and clustered random-effects meta-regression models., Results: Of the 1643 articles screened, 87 were included for the qualitative review, while 69 remained for the final meta-analyses. All included studies had some risk of bias with only 15% meeting five of the six examined criteria. Significant (p < 0.001) pooled effects were found for overall motor competence (N = 54; r = 0.25; 95% CI [0.20, 0.29]), locomotor (N = 45; r = 0.19; 95% CI [0.13, 0.25]), object control (N = 50; r = 0.22; 95% CI [0.17, 0.27]), stability/balance (N = 8; r = 0.21; 95% CI [0.12, 0.30]), and sport-specific competence (N = 8; r = 0.46; 95% CI [0.28, 0.61]). None of the hypothesized moderators significantly influenced the relationship between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception., Conclusions: The strength of the association between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception in youth is low to moderate, with current data demonstrating that the strength of association does not differ by age, sex, developmental status, or alignment between measurement instruments. However, this review highlights the lack of clarity on the relationship between actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception. Future research should address issues surrounding the design of studies and measurement of actual motor competence and perceived motor competence/physical self-perception as well as explore other potential confounding variables (i.e., product- versus process-oriented assessments, race, culture) that might affect the relationship between these two constructs.

Previous studies investigating the relationship between motor skill, physical activity and fitness in children have not thoroughly considered the role of self-perception. Therefore, the study aim was to test a theoretical framework, which considered both actual and perceived motor skill as well as actual and perceived fitness. Potential moderating effects of sex and country were considered. Data on motor skill, fitness, as well as self-perception of motor skill and fitness were collected from 145 Australian children and 214 German children (age range 7 to 10 years). For actual motor skill and fitness, mean differences for sex, age and country were found. For perceived motor performance (perceived motor skill and perceived fitness) no mean differences were found for age. Path analyses were performed. The final model showed significant relations between actual performance (object control skill, fitness) and perceived performance (object control skill, fitness). All model paths had low to moderate regression weights with the lowest relationship reported between actual and perceived fitness. Sex and country showed no effects. This integrated approach has led to a better understanding of the relationship between children's perceived and objective performance, and cultural differences within them.

Valid and reliable tests of motor competence are necessary to allow researchers and practitioners to quantify levels of motor competence, identify skill deficiencies, and determine the effectiveness of motor skill interventions. The primary study aim was to systematically review the validity and reliability of scores derived from gross motor competence tests for typically developing child and adolescent populations. The secondary aim of this review was to identify the most prevalent motor skills assessed across all instruments. A search of seven electronic databases identified 57 different skill assessment tools from 107 studies. Construct validity was the most common measurement property examined (60 studies; 56%). Content validity (21 studies; 20%) was the least commonly explored measurement property. Scores derived from the Test of Gross Motor Development - second and third edition had the most support for validity and reliability. The most common skills included in these skill batteries were the overhand throw (n = 33), catch (n = 32), jump (n = 31) and hop (n = 26). Research efforts should focus on: (1) further investigation of measurement properties of existing tools rather than developing new assessments and (2) further investigation of existing tools and their measurement properties in adolescent populations.

Motor competence (MC) in youth is associated with positive health outcomes, yet few achieve their developmental capability. Although numerous MC studies address initial intervention effectiveness, fewer consider intervention sustainability. This study aimed to investigate whether teachers continued to implement an effective MC programme targeting girls (mean age 12.4 ± 0.3 years), three years post-intervention. Ongoing implementation was examined using three domains of the UK Medical Research Council's framework: (i) implementation, (ii) mechanisms of impact, and (iii) context. Teachers (n = 18) completed self-report questionnaires and participated in focus group discussions (FGs). Descriptive statistics analysed questionnaires. FGs were audio recorded, transcribed verbatim and analysed in NVivo 11 using a framework approach. All teachers had continued to implement the programme, or elements thereof, three years post-intervention. The intervention structure, in particular alignment to the physical education context and curriculum, most notably influenced ongoing programme implementation. Improvement, both teacher practice and student performance, emerged as a driver of sustained impact. The programme demand appeared to be the most important facilitator of programme sustainability. Adaptations made to enhance contextual fit of the programme, post-intervention, extended the programme reach. Framed by implementation science, these findings provide valuable insight into programme sustainability and potential scalability.

The study purpose was to use Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) to objectively assess children's motor competence in seven movement skills. Fourteen children aged from seven to 12 years (M = 9.64) participated. Children were asked to perform up to 10 trials of each skill. Children performed the skills, which were captured by XSENS MVN Awinda wireless motion capture, and video. Skills were assessed from video as per the criteria from the Test of Gross Motor Development 3. Initially, 17 IMU sensors were used for signal processing, but this was restricted to four sensors (wrists and ankles) to be more feasible for field assessment. Results of the signal testing against its modelled "Good" signal, showed the skip was classified correctly each time, as was the sidestep. Accuracy % rates for each skill were: kick (95.2), catch (95.0), throw (80.5), jump (78.9), and hop (76.9). Using signal processing-based methods via four sensors was a reliable and feasible way to assess seven motor skills in children. This approach means monitoring and assessment of children's skills can be objective, which will potentially reduce the time involved in motor skill assessment and analysis for research, clinical, sport and education purposes.

Objectives: Self-perceptions such as perceived motor competence and psychosocial wellbeing have been identified as important to children's physical activity. The study's purpose was to explore whether perceived motor competence and psychosocial wellbeing were determinants of physical activity, one year after a baseline assessment., Design: Longitudinal study., Methods: A total of 134 children (65.7% boys, 34.3% girls) aged 6-7 years at baseline (2016), and 7-8 years at follow-up (2017) were included in this study. Pearson's correlations assessed associations at baseline and follow-up between moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) (accelerometers) and (i) total perceived motor competence and subdomains (the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence) and (ii) psychosocial wellbeing and sub-domains - KidKINDL KINDer Lebensqualitätsfragebogen: Children Quality of Life Questionnaire (KINDL R ). Variables identified as significant in Pearson's correlations were included in mixed model analyses, adjusting for accelerometer wear time, sex and age., Results: Baseline perceived object control skills was associated with MVPA at follow-up (r=0.38, p<0.001), but perceived locomotor skills were not. Self-esteem was the only subdomain of psychosocial wellbeing that demonstrated significant association with MVPA at baseline (r=0.21, p<0.05). Perceived object control (B=1.36, p=0.019, 95% CI [0.23, 2.50]) and self-esteem (B=0.32, p=0.001, 95% CI [0.13, 0.50]) positively predicted MVPA; albeit with small effects., Conclusions: Focusing on improving children's perceived object control and self-reported self-esteem may contribute to children's physical activity participation., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are important for physical activity and healthy weight status in children, yet it is unclear which early childhood factors facilitate subsequent motor skill. The aim of this prospective study was to investigate which modifiable family and home environment factors in the early years predict children's FMS at age five., Methods: Mothers from the Melbourne InFANT program (registered with the International Standard Randomised Controlled Trial Number Register (ISRCTN81847050)) completed questionnaires when child was aged 4, 9, 19 months old, and 3.5 years old on factors hypothesised to predict motor skills. Some factors were grouped in tertiles (high, medium, low) due to the nature of the distribution. At 5 years old children were assessed on 6 locomotor and 6 object control skills (Test of Gross Motor Development-2). Eight regression models examined the association between factors at each time-point and children's skills (object control and locomotor) at 5 years old., Results: The sample varied by time-point (178 to 259 children). Maternal physical activity optimism (4 months; β = 2.43), home physical activity equipment (9 months; β = 0.82), time outdoors - middle (9 months; β = 2.50) and highest tertile (9 months; β = 2.86), time free to move about - highest tertile (19 months; β = 2.41), time with older children - middle (19 months; β = 3.15) and highest tertile (3.5 years; β = 3.00) were predictive of better locomotor scores. Mothers' own physical activity (9 months; β = - 0.01) and time active with mum - highest tertile (3.5 years; β = - 3.73) were negatively associated with locomotor skill. Time with older children - highest (4 months; β = 2.27) and middle tertile (19 months; β = 2.97), time free to move about - middle (19 months; β = 2.55) and highest tertile (19 months; β = 2.47), and more home equipment (9 months; β = 0.83); (3.5 years; β = 0.17) were predictive of better object control skills. Maternal physical activity knowledge (3.5 years; β = - 3.05) was negatively associated with object control skill., Conclusions: Providing a supportive environment with older children and equipment, and allowing toddlers' freedom to move, appears important. Opportunities exist to educate parents on their important role in developing children's motor skills. Clinicians could advise parents that the home environment can make a difference to their child's FMS starting from infancy.

This study modelled children's gross motor coordination, investigated sex-differences and identified the effects of fixed and dynamic correlates on motor coordination development. A total of 344 Portuguese children (170 girls), from 6 age cohorts (5 to 9 years of age), were followed consecutively for three years (age range 5 to 11 years) using a mixed-longitudinal cohort design. Birth weight, hand dominance and socioeconomic status (SES) were identified. Gross motor coordination, body mass index, physical fitness (PF) and physical activity (PA) were assessed annually. A sequence of multilevel hierarchical linear models were developed. Model 1 found that age, age 2 , sex, sex-by-age and sex-by-age 2 were significant predictors (p < 0.05) of gross motor coordination. Boys outperformed girls from 6 years of age onwards. Model 2 found a cohort effect (p < 0.05). Model 3 found that right handers were more coordinated (p < 0.05). When the confounders of body mass index, PF and PA were added to the model (Model 4) it was found that boys and girls had parallel trajectories in their gross motor coordination development. In conclusion children with increasing body mass index were less coordinated, while those who were stronger and more agile had steeper trajectories of gross motor coordination with age.

Failure to master age-appropriate fundamental movement skills (FMS) at a young age can limit motor skill competence affecting health. Assessments often have issues with feasibility and implementation in a field setting. As such, the purpose of this study was to investigate the validity and feasibility of the Athletic Skills Track (AST), in a pre-school setting. For the validation study sixty-five 3-6 year old children (25 boys and 40 girls) from five pre-schools across Adelaide, Australia participated. Correlations and linear regression analysis (adjusted for age and gender) were used to investigate the association between the time to complete the AST and the raw score of the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). For the feasibility study pre-school staff completed a semi-structured interview regarding the feasibility of the AST. The AST took less than a minute per child and the TGMD-2 around 20 minutes for two children. There was a strong negative correlation (r = -0.63, p < 0.01) between the AST scores and the TGMD-2 scores. All five staff reported strengths of the AST to be its short administration time, setup and appropriateness. These results suggest that the AST could be a feasible and valid method of FMS assessment in Australian pre-schools.

We investigated child, family, and environmental factors associated with young children's perceptions of locomotor (LM) and object control (OC) skills. The participants comprised 472 children (6.22 ± 0.63) and their parents. The children were assessed for their perception of motor competence in LM and OC skills (using the pictorial scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for young children), and actual motor competence (Test of Gross Motor Development 3rd edition and Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder). Anthropometrics were calculated using the children's body mass index standard deviation scores. A parent questionnaire included questions about child factors (sex, child's independent walking age, time spent sedentary and outdoors, participation in organized sport activities, and access to electronic devices), family factors (parent educational level, physical activity frequency, and sedentary behavior), and environmental factors (access to sport facilities). Variance analysis sought to identify age-related differences, and a linear regression model examined correlates of children's perception of LM and OC skills. The children's movement skill perceptions were found to be generally high. Four factors explained 5.7% of the variance in perceptions of LM skills and 7.5% of the variance in perceptions of OC skills. Two factors, lower age and higher actual motor competence, explained most of the children's skill perceptions. Access to electronic devices (less) and Body mass index (BMI) (higher) were associated with perceptions of LM skills. Participation in organized sport activities (higher) and parental education (lower) were associated with perceptions of OC skills. When promoting children's physical activity and motor competence, perceptions of motor competence are an important consideration., (© 2019 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Children's fundamental movement skill levels (FMS) predict moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Asian children have been reported as less active than English-Europeans, possibly due to poorer skills. This study compared the FMS of children from Culturally and Linguistically Diverse (CALD) backgrounds and examined FMS correlates. A total of 261 children (122 males) aged 9-to-11 years were divided based on language spoken at home: English-European (n = 105) and Asian (n = 156). Height, mass, FMS (Test of Gross Motor Development-2), MVPA (accelerometer) and cardio-respiratory fitness (20m multistage shuttle run) were directly measured. Sex, age, language and perceived sport competence (CY-PSPP) were self-reported. Independent sample t-tests assessed age, BMI, FMS and perception by CALD group. Linear mixed models examined FMS correlates. Asian-speaking children had lower object control skill (35.5 v 37.2; CI [0.17, 3.18]; p < 0.03) compared to English-European- children, but no between-group differences in locomotor skills were observed. Fitness, physical activity and sport competence perception were positively associated with object control, yet adjusting for these variables (and age and BMI) did not remove the CALD effect (B = -2.02, SE = 0.69, p = 0.004). Cultural factors may affect object control competence in Asian-Australian children.

Objectives: To offer a user's guide to select appropriate measures of motor competence for children and adolescents., Design: Expert consensus among a working group of the International Motor Development Research Consortium (I-MDRC)., Methods: The guide provides information on objective (motion devices and direct observation) and subjective (self-reports and proxy reports) methods for assessing motor competence among children and adolescents. Key characteristics (age group, sample size, delivery mode, assessment time, data output, data processing) as well as limitations and practical considerations (e.g., cost, sources of error) with regard to each method are included in this paper. We do not recommend specific instruments, rather a guide to assist researchers and practitioners interested in assessing children's motor competence., Results: A decision flow chart was developed to support practitioners and researchers in selecting appropriate methods for measuring motor competence in young people. Real-life scenarios are presented to illustrate the use of different methods in research and practice., Conclusions: Policy makers, practitioners and researchers should consider the strengths and limitations of each method when measuring motor competence in children and adolescents. This will allow them to choose the most appropriate instrument(s) that meets their needs., (Copyright © 2018 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Fundamental movement skill (FMS) assessment in preschools allows for early intervention; however it is unclear what assessments are feasible. The purpose of this review is to systematically review the feasibility of FMS assessments for pre-school aged children. The search was conducted across four databases, MEDLINE, Scopus, ERIC and SportsDiscus. Search terms included synonyms of "fundamental movement skills" and "pre-school children". Inclusion criteria were: (i) FMS assessment; (ii) feasibility data; (iii) assessment of children aged three to six years; (iv) assessment of typically developing children; and (v) peer reviewed full text publications in English. Feasibility concepts (administration time, equipment, space, assessment type, item, training, qualification) were each coded as 'poor = 1', 'average = 2' and 'good = 3'; potential total of 21. A total of 330 full text articles were considered but a quarter (n = 86) were excluded due to no feasibility data. Sixty-five studies using 13 different FMS assessments were included. The Athletic Skills Track and DEMOST-PRE assessments were most feasible (18/21) and the Test of Gross Motor Development and Movement Assessment Battery for Children were common but among the least feasible (12-14/21). This review allows pre-school staff to choose a FMS assessment based on feasibility. Future studies need to present feasibility of assessments.

Perceived and actual motor competence (MC) influence physical activity (PA) behaviour. Notably, both are lower in girls than in boys. This study aimed to investigate (i) whether a 12-week, teacher-led intervention that improves actual MC (Lander, N., Morgan, P. J., Salmon, J., & Barnett, L. M. (2017). Improving early-adolescent girls' motor skill: A cluster randomized controlled trial. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise. 49 (12), 2498-2505) could also improve adolescent girls' physical self-perception and perceived MC, and (ii) whether change in actual MC is associated with post-intervention perceptions A randomized controlled trial with 171 girls (mean age 12.48 ± 0.34 years), measured perception (i.e., physical self-perception profile (PSPP) and pictorial scale of perceived movement skill competence (PMSC)) and actual MC (i.e., Victorian FMS Teachers' Assessment Manual). Mixed models with post-intervention perception as the outcome, adjusting for baseline perception, group, and change in actual MC, as well as clustering, were performed. An interaction term between change in MC and intervention status was included to test the secondary aim. There were significant intervention effects on girls' physical self-perception as well as their perceived MC. However, there was no association between change in actual MC across the intervention and post intervention perception. While the intervention improved both actual MC and perceived MC, they were not associated.

Background/aim: The aim of this study was to determine the face validity and the reliability of a pictorial scale to assess preschool children's perceived movement skills., Methods: The pictorial scale examines the perceptions of the 12 fundamental movement skills presented in the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (six locomotor and six object control skills) and six active play skills (e.g. cycling). A total of 91 Australian children aged four to five years from 14 preschools completed the scale on two occasions to determine test-retest reliability. Internal consistency was determined for all 18 items and for each subscale. After the second test, participants were asked open-ended questions to gain insight into their understanding of what was happening in the pictures to determine the face validity., Results: Overall, children demonstrated a better understanding of object control and play skills compared to locomotor skills. Test-retest reliability values were good for object control (intra-class correlation, ICC = 0.75), locomotor (ICC = 0.78), active play skills (ICC = 0.80) and all 18 skills combined (ICC = 0.77). Internal consistency was acceptable for locomotor (Test 1 0.64, Test 2 0.75), object control (0.71, 0.76), active play skills (0.76, 0.74) and for all 18 skills combined (0.88, 0.90)., Conclusions: Overall, this instrument demonstrated an acceptable reliability in preschool children and has provided preliminary information for examining the perceptions of movement skills. This age group presents a key target area for occupational therapists, who can assist preschool children to further develop fundamental movement skills, integrate these skills in their roles and occupations and increase engagement in meaningful physical activity in the long term., (© 2018 Occupational Therapy Australia.)

Purpose: This study examined how motor skills are associated with physical activity (PA), sedentary time, body fat, and day care attendance among young children. Also, the motor skills of healthy weight children were compared to those who were overweight or obese., Methods: The study population consisted of five to six years old children (n = 111; 45 boys) who participated in the longitudinal STEPS Study carried out in Southwest Finland in 2013-2014. Motor skills were measured with the Bruininks-Oseretsky test, second edition (BOT-2) including fine manual control, manual coordination, body coordination, and strength and agility. Moderate-to-vigorous intensity PA (MVPA) and sedentary time were objectively measured with hip-worn accelerometers. Body mass index (BMI) was calculated based on measured weight and height. Body fat percentage (BF%) was measured using segmental multifrequency bio impedance analysis. Day care attendance was measured with parental questionnaires. Linear regression analyses were adjusted by age, sex, and parental education., Results: Day care attendance was positively associated with body coordination and strength and agility. Lower BF% in girls was associated with higher strength and agility scores. There were no associations between manual coordination or fine manual control and the explanatory variables. Objectively measured MVPA and sedentary time showed no associations with motor skills. Overweight children had significantly lower scores in all motor skill composites (P < 0.05) than healthy weight children, except in fine manual control where the association was non-significant (P = 0.202)., Conclusions: Early prevention of overweight and obesity may be of importance and day care attendance may be beneficial for motor skill development., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

The promotion of motor competence is integral to a holistic view of children's development. Motor development models address the potential role of actual and perceived motor competence, physical activity and health-related fitness in children's health. Actual motor competence and optimal levels of perceived motor competence seem to be key for engaging children and adolescents in physical activity and sports. Commonly, the assessment of perceived motor competence is carried out by using instruments originally developed to assess different constructs of physical self-perception with the consequent error assumed. The aim of this article is to therefore offer clarification regarding the concept of perceived motor competence in terms of the conceptual and theoretical framework used for its explanation. A hierarchical and multidimensional structure of global self-concept is proposed with perceived motor competence considered as a subdomain of perceived sport/athletic competence (depending on the age or stage of development of the child) and subdivided into different subdomains of perceived competence in stability, locomotion, object control and active play skills. In order to improve consistency in the approach to assessment, it is desirable that researchers report an agreed definition for the construct of perceived motor competence so that readers can recognise the assumptions within the study accurately. Furthermore, it is suggested that instruments characterised by an alignment between actual and perceived motor competence assessments will help us understand more about children's motor perceptions.

Numerous skill batteries assess fundamental motor skill (e.g., kick, hop) competence. Few skill batteries examine lifelong physical activity skill competence (e.g., resistance training). This study aimed to develop and assess the content validity, test-retest and inter-rater reliability of the "Lifelong Physical Activity Skills Battery". Development of the skill battery occurred in three stages: i) systematic reviews of lifelong physical activity participation rates and existing motor skill assessment tools, ii) practitioner consultation and iii) research expert consultation. The final battery included eight skills: grapevine, golf swing, jog, push-up, squat, tennis forehand, upward dog and warrior I. Adolescents (28 boys, 29 girls; M = 15.8 years, SD = 0.4 years) completed the Lifelong Physical Activity Skills Battery on two occasions two weeks apart. The skill battery was highly reliable (ICC = 0.84, 95% CI = 0.72-0.90) with individual skill reliability scores ranging from moderate (warrior I; ICC = 0.56) to high (tennis forehand; ICC = 0.82). Typical error (4.0; 95% CI 3.4-5.0) and proportional bias (r = -0.21, p = .323) were low. This study has provided preliminary evidence for the content validity and reliability of the Lifelong Physical Activity Skills Battery in an adolescent population.

Background/aim: Parent proxy reports are well used in occupational therapy, yet historically parent report instruments of motor skill have not required parents to report on the same motor skills that their children are assessed on. The aim was to examine how well a parent report of children's fundamental movement skill (FMS) was associated with children's actual FMS., Method: A sample of 100 children aged 7-9 years from Melbourne, Australia, were recruited. Parents/guardians completed proxy report (parent version of the 'Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence' (PMSC)) and children's actual motor skills were assessed ('Test of Gross Motor Development' 3rd edition (TGMD-3)). Data were first analysed using Pearson's correlation coefficients and then hierarchical linear stepwise regression was conducted with actual skill as the outcome variable in each model., Results: The PMSC-Parent (r = 0.36, P < 0.001) was moderately associated with children's actual skill. After age and sex adjustment, the PMSC-Parent explained 11.4% of variance in total skills. Parent report of their children's object control scores (PMSC object control scale) was significantly associated with children's actual object control (B = 0.36, P < 0.001) and explained 11.3% of the variance. Parent report of children's locomotion scores (PMSC locomotion scale) was associated with children's actual locomotor skills (B = 0.27, P = 0.007) and explained 6.2% of the variance., Conclusion: Parents are able to report to some degree on their children's FMS competency, in particular, their object control competence. Parent proxy report of FMS may help inform occupational therapists to identify children with low FMS competency to develop interventions targeting FMS., (© 2018 Occupational Therapy Australia.)

The first aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between motor performance and body fatness among 3- to 5-year-old children. The second aim was to assess whether this relationship works similarly for boys and girls. We also investigated whether socioeconomic status (SES) and geographical area when children are aged 3 years old predicts the motor performance of 4 and 5-yr-old children. Motor performance was assessed through the Preschool Test Battery, while body fatness was estimated through body mass index (BMI). SES and geographical area were assessed via parent proxy-report questionnaires. BMI was negatively associated with standing long jump. The association of BMI and motor performance was not statistically different for boys and girls. Children from low SES performed better than high SES peers in tennis ball throw for distance. Rural children were better performers than urban peers in standing long jump. Rural area at baseline was also predictor of standing long jump and tennis ball throw for distance at time 1 and 2. In conclusion, BMI had a negative association with standing long jump and the relationship of BMI with all motor tests was similar for boys and girls. SES and rural area were predictors of motor performance.

Evidence supports a positive association between competence in fundamental movement skills (e.g., kicking, jumping) and physical activity in young people. Whilst important, fundamental movement skills do not reflect the broad diversity of skills utilized in physical activity pursuits across the lifespan. Debate surrounds the question of what are the most salient skills to be learned which facilitate physical activity participation across the lifespan. In this paper, it is proposed that the term 'fundamental movement skills' be replaced with 'foundational movement skills'. The term 'foundational movement skills' better reflects the broad range of movement forms that increase in complexity and specificity and can be applied in a variety of settings. Thus, 'foundational movement skills' includes both traditionally conceptualized 'fundamental' movement skills and other skills (e.g., bodyweight squat, cycling, swimming strokes) that support physical activity engagement across the lifespan. A proposed conceptual model outlines how foundational movement skill competency can provide a direct or indirect pathway, via specialized movement skills, to a lifetime of physical activity. Foundational movement skill development is hypothesized to vary according to culture and/or geographical location. Further, skill development may be hindered or enhanced by physical (i.e., fitness, weight status) and psychological (i.e., perceived competence, self-efficacy) attributes. This conceptual model may advance the application of motor development principles within the public health domain. Additionally, it promotes the continued development of human movement in the context of how it leads to skillful performance and how movement skill development supports and maintains a lifetime of physical activity engagement.

The aim of this study is to examine the prevalence and correlates of adolescents' resistance training (RT) skill competence. Participants were 548 adolescents (14.1 ± 0.5 years) from 16 schools in New South Wales, Australia. RT skills were assessed using the Resistance Training Skills Battery. Demographics, BMI, muscular fitness, perceived strength, RT self-efficacy, and motivation for RT were also assessed. The proportion demonstrating "competence" and "near competence" in each of the six RT skills were calculated and sex differences explored. Associations between the combined RT skill score and potential correlates were examined using multi-level linear mixed models. Overall, the prevalence of competence was low (range = 3.3% to 27.9%). Females outperformed males on the squat, lunge and overhead press, whereas males performed better on the push-up (p < .05). Significant associations were seen for a number of correlates, which largely differed by sex. Muscular fitness was moderately and positively associated with RT skills among both males (β = 0.34, 95%CIs = 0.23 to 0.46) and females (β = 0.36, 95%CIs = 0.23 to 0.48). Our findings support a link between RT skills and muscular fitness. Other associations were statistically significant but small in magnitude, and should therefore be interpreted cautiously.

Children change their body size, shape, and gross motor coordination (GMC) as they grow. Further, GMC is expected to link to changes in children's body size, physical activity (PA), and physical fitness (PF). The objective was to model GMC changes in children followed longitudinally and to investigate associations between these changes and PA and PF levels. A total of 245 children (122 girls) were observed at 6 years of age and followed annually until 9 years. A sequence of allometric models was fitted, that is, 1. body mass, stature, and PA; 2. addition of four PF tests; 3. addition of four more PF tests. In Model 1, changes in GMC are nonlinear, and body mass (-0.60 ± 0.07, P < .001) and stature (2.91 ± 0.35, P < .001) parameter estimates were significant suggesting children with a more linear body size/shape showed higher GMC performances. Girls tend to outperform boys across time, and PA was not associated with GMC changes. Model 2 fitted the data better, and the PF tests (handgrip, standing long jump, 50-yard dash, and shuttle run) were significantly linked to GMC change. In Model 3, adding the remaining PF tests did not change the order of any factors importance. The greatest GMC changes were achieved by children whose body size/shape has an ectomorphic dominance across the years. Considering that leaner and physically fitter children tended to be more coordinated, physical education should also focus on PF development in components related to muscular strength, speed, agility, and aerobic capacity, along with nutritional education to reduce fat mass., (© 2018 John Wiley & Sons A/S. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Children's perception of their own motor competence is an important correlate of their actual motor competence. The current study is the first to examine this association in British children and the first to use both product and process measures of actual motor competence. A total of 258 children (139 boys and 119 girls; aged 4 to 7 years, Mean = 5.6, SD = .96) completed measures of self-perceived motor competence using the Pictorial Scale for Perceived Movement Competence in Young Children. Children were classified as "Low," "Medium," or "High" perceived competence based on tertile analysis. Actual motor competence was assessed with the Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (a process measure) and a composite of 10-m sprint run time, standing long jump distance, and 1-kg seated medicine ball throw (collectively, a product measure). Data for process and product measures were analyzed using a 2 (sex) × 3 (high, medium, low perceived competence) analysis of covariance, with body mass index, calculated from height and mass, and age controlled. Boys obtained significantly higher scores than girls for both the process ( p = .044) and product ( p = .001) measures of actual motor competence. Boys had significantly ( p = .04) higher scores for perceived competence compared to girls. Compared to children classified as medium and high self-perceived competence, children classified as low self-perceived competence had lower process ( p = .001) and product scores (i.e., medium, p = .009 and high, p = .0001) of actual motor competence. Age ( p = .0001) and body mass index ( p = .0001) were significantly associated with product motor competence. Strategies to enhance actual motor competence may benefit children's self-perceived motor competence.

Objectives: The use of interactive video gaming, known as 'exergames' or 'active video games (AVG)' may provide an opportunity for motor skill development. Youth with non-typical patterns of development may have deficits in gross motor skill capacities and are therefore an intervention target. The aim was to determine the effectiveness of AVG use on motor skill development in non-typically developing children and adolescents., Design: Review article., Methods: The PRISMA protocol was used to conduct a systematic review of EBSCOhost, Embase, Gale Cengage, Informit, Ovid, ProQuest, PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases. A total of 19 articles met inclusion criteria (non-typically developing participants such as those with a learning or developmental delay aged 3-18, use of an AVG console, assessed one or more gross motor skills). Studies were excluded if gross motor skill outcomes encompassed fine motor skills or reflected mobility related to daily living., Results: Interventions included children and adolescents with eight different conditions. The Nintendo Wii was the most utilised gaming platform (14/19 studies). Studies examined a combination of skills, with most examining balance (15/19), five studies examining ball skills, and other gross motor skills such as coordination (3 studies), running (3 studies) and jumping (3 studies). There was strong evidence that AVG's improved balance. AVG's also appeared to benefit participants with Cerebral Palsy., Conclusions: AVG's could be a valuable tool to improve gross motor skills of non-typically developing children. There is scope for further exploration, particularly of ball, coordination and locomotor skills and varying platforms to draw more conclusive evaluations., (Copyright © 2017 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Physical activity (PA) levels decline substantially during adolescence and are consistently lower in girls. Competency in a range of fundamental movement skills (FMSs) may serve as a protective factor for the decline in PA typically observed in adolescent girls; yet, girls' mastery in FMS is low. Although interventions can improve FMS, there is a lack of interventions targeting girls, and very few are conducted in high schools. In addition, interventions are usually conducted by researchers, not teachers, and thus have little chance of being embedded into curricula., Purpose: This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a school-based intervention, delivered by teachers, in improving adolescent girls' FMS., Methods: Four all-girls Australian secondary schools were recruited and randomized into intervention or control groups. In total, 190 year 7 girls (103 control/87 intervention; mean age, 12.4 ± 0.3 yr) completed baseline and posttest measures at 12 wk. Six FMS (i.e., catch, throw, kick, jump, leap, and dodge) were measured using the Victorian FMS Assessment instrument. Mixed models with posttest skill (i.e., locomotor, object control, and total skill) as the outcome, adjusting for baseline skill, intervention and control status, and relevant covariates, as well as accounting for clustering at school and class level, were used to assess the intervention impact., Results: There were significant intervention effects, and large effect sizes (Cohen d) noted in locomotor (P = 0.04, t = 5.15, d = 1.6), object control (P < 0.001, t = 11.06, d = 0.83), and total skill (P = 0.02, t = 7.22, d = 1.36)., Conclusions: Teachers adequately trained in authentic assessment and student-centered instruction can significantly improve the FMS competency of early adolescent girls. Therefore, comprehensive teacher training should be viewed as an integral component of future school-based interventions.

Objectives: Possessing positive physical perceived competence is important for physical activity in older children. Young children are primarily physically active through play-based behaviour rather than through organised sports and activities, so understanding how play perceptions might influence physical activity behaviour is important. The study purpose was to assess if perceived active play competence is associated with young children's physical activity., Design: Cross sectional study., Methods: This paper uses two different samples drawn from the same Australian city, both collected in 2013. The first sample included 152 children (49% boys) aged 4-5 years (M=4.7, SD=0.47), the second sample included 78 children (55% boys) aged 5-8 years (M=6.6, SD=0.93). The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence was used to assess children's perceived competence in six skill-related play activities. Moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) was assessed for 8 consecutive days via accelerometers. A general linear model with the mean minutes in MVPA per day as the outcome, perceived play competence as the independent variable and adjusting for relevant confounders was performed in each sample., Results: Perceived active play competence was not related to MVPA min/day (B=0.44, p=0.323) in the younger sample, but was in the older sample (B=1.53, p=0.026), explaining 24% of adjusted variance., Conclusions: Positive findings in the older sample show school-aged children need exposure to play based activities in order to develop the positive self-perception needed to engage in MVPA every day., (Copyright © 2017 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Proficiency in fundamental movement skills (FMS) is positively correlated with cardiorespiratory fitness, healthy weight status, and physical activity. Many instruments have been developed to assess FMS in children. It is important to accurately measure FMS competency in adolescent populations, particularly in girls, who are less proficient than boys. Yet these tests have not been validated or tested for reliability among girls in this age group., Design: The current study tested the concurrent validity and reliability of two FMS assessment instruments; the newly developed Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment (CAMSA), against the Victorian FMS Assessment from Australia, among a sample of early adolescent girls., Methods: In total, 34 Year 7 females (mean age 12.6 years) from Australia were tested and retested on each instrument in a school setting., Results: Test-retest reliability was excellent for the overall CAMSA score (ICC=0.91) and for the isolated time and skill score components (time: ICC=0.80; skill: ICC=0.85). Test-retest reliability of the Victorian FMS Assessment was also good (ICC=0.79). There was no evidence of proportional bias in either assessment. There was evidence of strong concurrent validity (r s =0.68, p<0.05)., Conclusions: Both instruments were found to be reliable and valid. However, compared to the Victorian FMS instrument, the CAMSA has the advantage of both process and product assessment, less time needed to administer and higher authenticity, and so may be an attractive alternative to the more traditional forms of FMS assessment, for use with early adolescent girls, in school settings., (Copyright © 2017 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Process-oriented motor competence (MC) assessments evaluate how a movement is performed. Product-oriented assessments evaluate the outcome of a movement. Determining the concurrent validity of process and product assessments is important to address the predictive utility of motor competence for health. The current study aimed to: (1) compare process and product assessments of the standing long jump, hop and throw across age groups and (2) determine the capacity of process assessments to classify levels of MC. Participants included 170 children classified into three age groups: 4-5, 7-8 and 10-11 years old. Participants' skills were examined concurrently using three process assessments ((Test of Gross Motor Development-2nd edition [TGMD-2]), Get Skilled; Get Active, and developmental sequences) and one product measure (throw speed, jump and hop distance). Results indicate moderate to strong correlations between (1) process assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .37-70) and (2) process and product assessments across skills and age groups (r range = .26-.88). In general, sensitivity to detect advanced skill level is lowest for TGMD-2 and highest for developmental sequences for all three skills. The use of process and product assessments is suggested to comprehensively capture levels of MC in human movement.

Objectives: Internationally, children's movement competence levels are low. This study's aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 16 week gymnastics curriculum on stability, locomotive and object control skills and general body coordination. It was hypothesised that the gymnastics intervention group would demonstrate significant improvements beyond a PE comparison group., Design: This study used a non-randomised control design. The intervention and comparison groups were drawn from three primary schools. The study followed the transparent reporting of evaluations with nonrandomized designs (TREND) statement for reporting., Methods: A total of 333 children (51% girls, 41% intervention) with a mean age of 8.1 years (SD=1.1) participated. Intervention children (16 weeks×2h of gymnastics) were compared to children who received (16×2h) standard PE curriculum. Children's movement competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, Stability Skills Assessment and the Körper-Koordinationstest für Kinder. Multilevel linear mixed models, accounting for variation at the class level and adjusted for age and sex, were used to assess intervention relative to comparison differences in all aspects of movement competence., Results: Stability and object control skills showed a significant (p<0.05) intervention×time interaction effect. No difference was found in locomotor skills or general coordination., Conclusions: Gymnastics is effective at developing stability skills and object control skills without hindering the development of locomotor skills or general coordination. Accelerated learning of stability skills may support the development of more complex movement skills., (Copyright © 2016 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Gross motor competence confers health benefits, but levels in children and adolescents are low. While interventions can improve gross motor competence, it remains unclear which correlates should be targeted to ensure interventions are most effective, and for whom targeted and tailored interventions should be developed., Objective: The aim of this systematic review was to identify the potential correlates of gross motor competence in typically developing children and adolescents (aged 3-18 years) using an ecological approach., Methods: Motor competence was defined as gross motor skill competency, encompassing fundamental movement skills and motor coordination, but excluding motor fitness. Studies needed to assess a summary score of at least one aspect of motor competence (i.e., object control, locomotor, stability, or motor coordination). A structured electronic literature search was conducted in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses statement. Six electronic databases (CINAHL Complete, ERIC, MEDLINE Complete, PsycINFO ® , Scopus and SPORTDiscus with Full Text) were searched from 1994 to 5 August 2014. Meta-analyses were conducted to determine the relationship between potential correlates and motor competency if at least three individual studies investigated the same correlate and also reported standardized regression coefficients., Results: A total of 59 studies were identified from 22 different countries, published between 1995 and 2014. Studies reflected the full range of age groups. The most examined correlates were biological and demographic factors. Age (increasing) was a correlate of children's motor competence. Weight status (healthy), sex (male) and socioeconomic background (higher) were consistent correlates for certain aspects of motor competence only. Physical activity and sport participation constituted the majority of investigations in the behavioral attributes and skills category. Whilst we found physical activity to be a positive correlate of skill composite and motor coordination, we also found indeterminate evidence for physical activity being a correlate of object control or locomotor skill competence. Few studies investigated cognitive, emotional and psychological factors, cultural and social factors or physical environment factors as correlates of motor competence., Conclusion: This systematic review is the first that has investigated correlates of gross motor competence in children and adolescents. A strength is that we categorized correlates according to the specific ways motor competence has been defined and operationalized (object control, motor coordination, etc.), which enables us to have an understanding of what correlates assist what types of motor competence. Indeed our findings do suggest that evidence for some correlates differs according to how motor competence is operationalized., Competing Interests: Compliance with Ethical Standards Funding The preparation of this review was funded by the Australasian Child and Adolescent Obesity Research Network (ACAORN). Lisa Barnett was supported by an Alfred Deakin postdoctoral fellowship. Samuel Lai and Sanne Veldman were supported by ACAORN funds for review tasks associated with the preparation of this manuscript. Dylan Cliff is funded by an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE140101588). Nicola Ridgers is funded by an Australian Research Council Discovery Early Career Researcher Award (DE120101173). Anthony Okely is supported by a Career Development Fellowship from the National Heart Foundation of Australia. Conflict of interest Lisa Barnett, Samuel Lai, Sanne Veldman, Louise Hardy, Dylan Cliff, Philip Morgan, Avigdor Zask, Sarah Shultz, David Lubans, Nicola Ridgers, Elaine Rush, Helen Brown and Anthony Okely declare that they have no conflicts of interest relevant to the content of this review.

Background: Almost half of young children do not achieve minimum recommendations of 60 daily minutes in physical activity. Physical activity is potentially an important determinant of the development of motor competence in children. This study is one of very few longitudinal studies in this area and the first to investigate early childhood physical activity as a predictor of subsequent motor skill competence., Methods: Children were assessed as part of the Melbourne InFANT Program longitudinal cohort study at 19 months, 3.5 years and 5 years. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) (accelerometry) was assessed at each time point. At age 5, children were also assessed in actual (Test of Gross Motor Development-2) and perceived motor competence (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence). General linear models were performed with all 12 skills (six object control and six locomotor skills), both actual and perceived, at age 5 as the respective outcome variables. Predictor variables alternated between MVPA at 19 months, 3.5 years and 5 years., Results: Based on standardized TGMD-2 scores most children were average or below in their skill level at age 5. MVPA at 19 months was not a predictor of actual or perceived skill at age 5. MVPA at 3.5 years was associated with actual locomotor skill (B = 0.073, p = 0.033) and perceived total skill at 5 years of age (B = 0.059, p = 0.044). MVPA was not a predictor of actual or perceived object control skill at any age., Conclusion: Parents and preschool staff should be informed that more time in MVPA as a preschool child contributes to locomotor skill and to perceptions of skill ability in a child of school starting age. Understanding this relationship will assist in intervention development.

Background: It is important to assess young children's perceived Fundamental Movement Skill (FMS) competence in order to examine the role of perceived FMS competence in motivation toward physical activity. Children's perceptions of motor competence may vary according to the culture/country of origin; therefore, it is also important to measure perceptions in different cultural contexts. The purpose was to assess the face validity, internal consistency, test-retest reliability and construct validity of the 12 FMS items in the Pictorial Scale for Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children (PMSC) in a Portuguese sample., Methods: Two hundred one Portuguese children (girls, n = 112), 5 to 10 years of age (7.6 ± 1.4), participated. All children completed the PMSC once. Ordinal alpha assessed internal consistency. A random subsamples (n = 47) were reassessed one week later to determine test-retest reliability with Bland-Altman method. Children were asked questions after the second administration to determine face validity. Construct validity was assessed on the whole sample with a Bayesian Structural Equation Modelling (BSEM) approach. The hypothesized theoretical model used the 12 items and two hypothesized factors: object control and locomotor skills., Results: The majority of children correctly identified the skills and could understand most of the pictures. Test-retest reliability analysis was good, with an agreement ration between 0.99 and 1.02. Ordinal alpha values ranged from acceptable (object control 0.73, locomotor 0.68) to good (all FMS 0.81). The hypothesized BSEM model had an adequate fit., Conclusions: The PMSC can be used to investigate perceptions of children's FMS competence. This instrument can also be satisfactorily used among Portuguese children., (© 2016 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Objectives: To determine the associations between young children's actual and perceived object control and locomotor skills and physical activity and whether associations differ by sex., Design: Cross sectional study., Methods: A total of 136 children consented. Children had actual skill (Test of Gross Motor Development-2), perceived skill (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children), and moderate- to vigorous-intensity physical activity (MVPA) (accelerometers) assessed. Independent t-tests assessed sex differences. A regression (with MVPA as the outcome) was performed with all predictor variables (i.e. Actual Object Control, Actual Locomotor, Perceived Object Control, and Perceived Locomotor). Model 2 also adjusted for age, sex, accelerometer wear time and whether the child was from an English speaking background. Interaction terms between the respective actual or perceived skill factor and sex were added to assess sex differences., Results: Analyses were conducted on 109 children (59 boys, 50 girls; mean age=6.5 years, SD=1.0). Boys had higher actual and perceived object control skill and were more active by an average of 19min per day. There were no sex differences in locomotor skills. There were no associations between skill factors and MVPA, except for girls, where locomotor skill was a significant predictor of MVPA (B=3.66, p=0.016)., Conclusions: Actual rather than perceived skill competence was more important to MVPA in this sample. Locomotor skill competence may be more important than object control skill competence for girls as they may engage in types of physical activity that do not require object control mastery., (Copyright © 2015 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objectives: Actual and perceived object control (commonly ball) skill proficiency is associated with higher physical activity in children and adolescents. Active video games (AVGs) encourage whole body movement to control/play the electronic gaming system and therefore provide an opportunity for screen time to become more active. The purpose of this study was to determine whether playing sports AVGs has a positive influence on young children's actual and perceived object control skills., Design: Two group pre/post experimental design study., Methods: Thirty-six children aged 6-10 years old from one school were randomly allocated to a control or intervention condition. The Test of Gross Motor Development-3 assessed object control skill. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence for Young Children assessed perceived object control skill. The intervention consisted of 6×50min lunchtime AVG sessions on the Xbox Kinect. Two to three sport games were chosen for participants to play each session. General linear models with either perceived object control or actual object control skill as the outcome variables were conducted. Each base model adjusted for intervention status and pre-score of the respective outcome variable. Additional models adjusted for potential confounding variables (sex of child and game at home)., Results: No significant differences between the control and intervention groups were observed for both outcomes., Conclusions: This study found that playing the Xbox Kinect does not significantly influence children's perceived or actual object control skills, suggesting that the utility of the Xbox Kinect for developing perceived and actual object control skill competence is questionable., (Copyright © 2015 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)