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In recent decades, normative expectations for parenthood have changed for both men and women, fertility has declined, and work–family arrangements have become more egalitarian. Previous studies indicate that the transition to parenthood and work–family arrangements both influence life satisfaction and do so differently for men and women. Drawing on constructivism and utility maximization, we theorize how gendered parenthood norms influence life satisfaction after the transition to parenthood, and how decisions regarding motherhood and fatherhood are made in order to maximize life satisfaction. We hypothesize that the rise of gender-egalitarian patterns has contributed to closing the parental happiness gap, and that the effects of motherhood and fatherhood on life satisfaction have converged. We test these assumptions by drawing on data from the German Socio-Economic Panel (1984-2015) and applying a series of hybrid panel regressions to estimate motherhood and fatherhood effects on life satisfaction in Western Germany over the last three decades. We then trace trends in these effects back to changing parenthood norms. The results indicate that the implications of parenthood have converged for men and women. As support for a gendered division of labor has lost ground, the transition to parenthood has become increasingly conducive to life satisfaction for both genders, and the parental happiness gap has vanished. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: This article analyzes trends in the relationships among motherhood, employment, and life satisfaction in Germany and regresses them on changing motherhood norms. Background: Motherhood norms have changed in recent decades in Germany, and differences in labor force participation between mothers and women without children have decreased. We research whether differences in life satisfaction have decreased at the same time. Method: Analyses are based on the German Socio‐Economic Panel (1984–2015) and restricted to women aged 16 to 45 (N = 18,238). A series of hybrid panel regressions was used to determine intrapersonal and interpersonal motherhood and employment effects on life satisfaction over decades. Polynomial regressions were used to relate these effects to changing motherhood norms. Results: The negative effects of motherhood on life satisfaction are less prevalent today than they were in the past. The interpersonal maternal happiness gap has disappeared, and the intrapersonal motherhood effect on life satisfaction has increased during the past decades. Conclusion: As restrictive social norms for maternal employment have lost ground, the transition to motherhood has become increasingly conducive to life satisfaction for both working and nonworking mothers. Implication: Normative and public support of women's freedom to choose among different motherhood roles is key to reducing financial and time pressures of mothers and thereby increasing maternal life satisfaction. Further support is needed for mothers without partners or jobs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]