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Mosses are multifunctional communities that are increasingly recognized as potential and sustainable resources to restore degraded ecosystems. However, available information is limited on the influence of mosses on soil multifunctionality during vegetation restoration in subtropical ecosystems. We investigated the effects of mosses on soil multifunctionality and four single functions in three vegetation restoration approaches (monoculture plantations, monoculture forage grasses and intercropping of trees and forage grasses) by conducting a moss removal and retention experiment. Moss removal decreased soil multifunctionality and the single functions of nutrient provisioning, water retention and plant–microbe symbiosis, particularly in monoculture plantations, in the 0–5 cm soil layer. Moss removal decreased the phospholipid fatty acid abundance of soil microbes (e.g., bacteria, Gram-negative bacteria and general fungi) in the 2–5 cm soil layer but had nonsignificant effects on the nematode community. Random forest analysis showed that moss properties were more important factors than the soil physicochemical, microbial and nematode properties linked to soil multifunctionality. Moss properties (diversity, thickness, biomass, carbon and nitrogen concentrations, carbon to nitrogen ratio, biological nitrogen fixation rate and saturated water absorption content) were positively associated with soil multifunctionality, nutrient provisioning, water retention and plant–microbe symbiosis. These findings highlight the importance of preserving mosses to maintain soil multifunctionality during vegetation restoration in degraded subtropical ecosystems, especially in monoculture plantations. • Moss removal decreased the functions of nutrient provisioning, water retention and plant–microbe symbiosis. • Soil microbial community was more responsive than nematode community to moss removal. • Moss properties were positively associated with soil multifunctionality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Mosses form a ground layer with a thickness of nearly 1 cm during the first decade of vegetation restoration, but their effects on the belowground microbial community and soil properties and the associated soil carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) accumulation in subtropical areas are unclear. Here, we measured soil C and N variables (soil organic C [SOC], total N [TN], dissolved organic C, ammonium [NH 4 +-N] and nitrate [NO 3 −-N]), soil microbial community and soil properties (soil water content [SWC] and pH) under four treatments (bare soil [BS], bare soil with transplanted moss, moss-covered soil [MS] and moss-covered soil with moss removed) in three vegetation types (forest plantations, forage grasslands and mixed plantations and forage grasslands) in a subtropical climate. We analyzed the effects of native mosses, moss transplantation and removal using BS and MS as references. One year post-treatment, moss transplantation increased NO 3 −-N and NH 4 +-N in the 0–5 cm and 2–5 cm soil layers, respectively. Conversely, moss removal decreased SOC and TN in the 0–2 cm soil layer and SWC in the 0–5 cm soil layer. Compared to BS and MS, native moss presence, moss transplantation and removal decreased the total microbial, bacterial and fungal biomass and altered the soil microbial community composition (ratios of fungi and bacteria and Gram-positive bacteria to Gram-negative bacteria) to varying degrees. Moss properties (biomass, C and N concentrations, C:N ratio and saturated water absorption content), as well as SWC, soil microbial biomass and community composition regulated by mosses affected soil C and N. These findings underscore the crucial role of mosses in facilitating soil C and N accumulation during vegetation restoration. • Both the presence and removal of mosses decreased soil microbial biomass. • Mosses altered soil microbial community composition. • Mosses promoted soil C and N accumulation by affecting soil microbial biomass and community composition. • Mosses are particularly important for soil C and N accumulation in forest plantations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]