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Background: In prey, patterns of individual habitat selection and movement can be a consequence of an individuals' anti-predator behavior. Adjustments of anti-predator behavior are important for prey to increase their survival. Hunters may alter the anti-predator behavior of prey. In long-lived animals, experience may cause behavioral changes during individuals' lifetime, which may result in altered habitat selection and movement. Our knowledge of which specific events related to hunting activity induce behavioral changes in solitary living species is still limited. Methods: We used offspring loss in a solitary and long-lived ungulate species, moose (Alces alces), as our model system. We investigated whether offspring loss to hunters induces behavioral changes in a species subjected to heavy human harvest but free from natural predation. To test for behavioral change in relation to two proxies for experience (calf fate and age), we combined movement data from 51 adult female moose with data on their offspring survival and female age. We tested for adjustments in females' habitat selection and movement following calf harvest using Hidden Markov Models and integrated Step Selection Analysis to obtain behavioral state specific habitat selection coefficients. Results: We found that females with a harvested calf modified habitat selection and movement during the following hunting season. Female moose selected for shorter distance to roads during the night, selected for shorter distance to forests and greater distance to human settlements following calf harvest than females who had not lost a calf. The survival of twins in a given hunting season was related to female age. Older females we more likely to have twins survive the hunting season. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that losing offspring to human harvest imposes behavioral changes in a long-lived ungulate species, leading to adjustments in females' habitat selection and movement behavior, which may lower the risk of encountering hunters. In our study, female moose that experienced calf loss selected for lower distance to forest and selected for greater distance to human settlements during periods of high hunting pressure compared to females without the experience of calf loss during the previous hunting season. We interpret this as potential learning effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The careful selection of ungulate calving sites to improve offspring survival is vital in the face of predation. In general, there is limited knowledge to which degree predator presence and prey's individual experience shape the selection of calving sites. Predator presence influences the spatiotemporal risk of encountering a predator, while individual experiences with previous predation events shape perceived mortality risks. We used a multi‐year movement dataset of a long‐lived female ungulate (moose, Alces alces, n = 79) and associated calf survival to test how predator presence (i.e., encounter risk) and females' individual experiences with previous calf mortality events affected their calving site selection and site fidelity. Using data from areas with and without Scandinavian brown bear (Ursus arctos) predation, we compared females' calving site selection using individual‐based analyses. Our findings suggest two things. First, bear presence influences calving site selection in this solitary living ungulate. Females in areas with bears were selected for higher shrub and tree cover and showed lower site fidelity than in the bear‐free area. Second, the individual experience of calf loss changes females' selection the following year. Females with lost calves had a lower site fidelity compared to females with surviving calves. Our findings suggest that increased vegetation cover may be important for reducing encounter risk in bear areas, possibly by improving calf concealment. Lower site fidelity might represent a strategy to make the placement of calving sites less predictable for predators. We suggest that bear presence shapes both habitat selection and calving site fidelity in a long‐lived animal, whereas the effect of individual experience with previous calf loss varies. We encourage further research on the relevance of female experience on the success of expressed anti‐predator strategies during calving periods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although the advent of high‐resolution GPS tracking technology has helped increase our understanding of individual and multispecies behavior in wildlife systems, detecting and recording direct interactions between free‐ranging animals remains difficult. In 2023, we deployed GPS collars equipped with proximity sensors (GPS proximity collars) on brown bears (Ursus arctos) and moose (Alces alces) as part of a multispecies interaction study in central Sweden. On 6 June, 2023, a collar on an adult female moose and a collar on an adult male bear triggered each other's UHF signal and started collecting fine‐scale GPS positioning data. The moose collar collected positions every 2 min for 89 min, and the bear collar collected positions every 1 min for 41 min. On 8 June, field personnel visited the site and found a female neonate moose carcass with clear indications of bear bite marks on the head and neck. During the predation event, the bear remained at the carcass while the moose moved back and forth, moving toward the carcass site about five times. The moose was observed via drone with two calves on 24 May and with only one remaining calf on 9 June. This case study describes, to the best of our knowledge, the first instance of a predation event between two free ranging, wild species recorded by GPS proximity collars. Both collars successfully triggered and switched to finer‐scaled GPS fix rates when the individuals were in close proximity, producing detailed movement data for both predator and prey during and after a predation event. We suggest that, combined with standard field methodology, GPS proximity collars placed on free‐ranging animals offer the ability for researchers to observe direct interactions between multiple individuals and species in the wild without the need for direct visual observation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Instrumentation and sample collection for wildlife research and management may require chemical immobilisation of animals, which may entail physiological and behavioural effects on them. It is therefore important to evaluate the immobilisation protocols to reduce the risk of mortality and morbidity of the handled animals and their populations. Using a multi-sensor approach, we assessed the short-term (< 10 days) thermal and behavioural responses of 10 adult female moose (Alces alces) equipped with ruminal temperature loggers and GPS collars with accelerometers to helicopter-based chemical immobilisations. We investigated the body temperature (Tb), movement rates, and resting time before, during, and after recapture. Chemical immobilisations on average increased maximum Tb by 0.71 °C during the capture day, and imposed longer travel distances during the capture day and the two following days (3.8 and 1.8 km, respectively), compared to a 10-day reference period before the immobilisation. The probability of resting was 5–6% lower on the capture day and the two following days compared to the reference period, and females with offspring had a higher probability of resting than females without. Maximum Tb, movement rate, and resting time returned to pre-capture levels on an individual level 2 h, 3 days, and 3 days after the immobilisation, respectively. Chemical immobilisation of moose from a helicopter increases the energy expenditure deduced through movement and Tb rise lasting for hours to days. Ecological and physiological studies aimed at inferring general patterns may encounter bias if including sensor and tracking data from tagged animals without accounting for potential post-capture effects. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Differences in botanical diet compositions among a large number of moose faecal samples collected during winter correlated with the nutritional differences identified in the same samples (Mantel‐r = 0.89, p = 0.001), but the nutritional differences were significantly smaller (p < 0.001).Nutritional geometry revealed that moose mixed Scots pine Pinus sylvestris and Vaccinium spp. as nutritionally complementary foods to reach a nutritional target resembling Salix spp. twigs, and selected for Salix spp. browse (Jacob's D > 0).Available protein (AP) and total non‐structural carbohydrates (TNC) were significantly correlated in observed diets but not in hypothetical diets based on food availability.The level of Acetoacetate in moose serum (i.e. 'starvation') was weakly negatively associated with digestibility of diets (p = 0.08) and unrelated to increasing AP:TNC and AP:NDF ratios in diets (p > 0.1).Our study is the first to demonstrate complementary feeding in free‐ranging moose to attain a nutritional target that has previously been suggested in a feeding trial with captive moose. Our results add support to the hypothesis of nutritional balancing as a driver in the nutritional strategy of moose with implications for both the management of moose and food resources. Read the free Plain Language Summary for this article on the Journal blog. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: Several large‐mammal species in Europe have recovered and recolonized parts of their historical ranges. Knowing where suitable habitat exists, and thus where range expansions are possible, is important for proactively promoting coexistence between people and large mammals in shared landscapes. We aimed to assess the opportunities and limitations for range expansions of Europe's two largest herbivores, the European bison (Bison bonasus) and moose (Alces alces). Location: Central Europe. Methods: We used large occurrence datasets from multiple populations and species distribution models to map environmentally suitable habitats for European bison and moose across Central Europe, and to assess human pressure inside the potential habitat. We then used circuit theory modeling to identify potential recolonization corridors. Results: We found widespread suitable habitats for both European bison (>120,000 km2) and moose (>244,000 km2), suggesting substantial potential for range expansions. However, much habitat was associated with high human pressure (37% and 43% for European bison and moose, respectively), particularly in the west of Central Europe. We identified a strong east–west gradient of decreasing connectivity, with major barriers likely limiting natural recolonization in many areas. Main conclusions: We identify major potential for restoring large herbivores and their functional roles in Europe's landscapes. However, we also highlight considerable challenges for conservation planning and wildlife management, including areas where recolonization likely leads to human–wildlife conflict and where barriers to movement prevent natural range expansion. Conservation measures restoring broad‐scale connectivity are needed in order to allow European bison and moose to recolonize their historical ranges. Finally, our analyses and maps indicate suitable but isolated habitat patches that are unlikely to be colonized but are candidate locations for reintroductions to establish reservoir populations. More generally, our work emphasizes that transboundary cooperation is needed for restoring large herbivores and their ecological roles, and to foster coexistence with people in Europe's landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Partial migration, whereby a proportion of a population migrates between distinct seasonal ranges, is common throughout the animal kingdom. However, studies linking existing theoretical models of migration probability, with empirical data are lacking. The competitive release hypothesis for partial migration predicts that due to density‐dependent habitat selection, the proportion of migrants increases as the relative quality and size of the seasonal range increases, but decreases with increasing migration cost and population density. To test this prediction, we developed a quantitative framework to predict the proportion of migrants, using empirical data from 545 individually GPS‐marked moose Alces alces from across Fennoscandia, spanning latitudes of 56° to 68°N. Moose contracted their ranges to common and spatially limited winter areas (typically at lower elevation), but expanded them during summer due to an increase in suitable habitat (at highland ranges). As predicted from our model, a better and larger highland range relative to the lowland range corresponded to a higher proportion of migrants in an area. Quantitative predictions coupling the balance of habitat availability of seasonal ranges with the probability of migrating in a large herbivore is a necessary step towards an enhanced understanding of the mechanisms underlying migration at the population level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Optimal management of hunted species requires an understanding of the impacts of hunting on both individual animal and population levels. Recent technological advancements in biologging enable us to obtain increasingly detailed information from free-ranging animals, covering longer periods of time, and providing the data needed to assess such impacts. In Sweden, more than 80 000 moose are harvested annually, mostly hunted with the use of baying dogs. The effects of this hunting method on animal welfare and stress are understudied. Here, we evaluated 6 real and 17 experimental hunting approaches with baying dogs [wearing global positioning system (GPS) collars] on 8 adult female moose equipped with ruminal temperature loggers, subcutaneous heart rate (HR) loggers and GPS collars with accelerometers. The obtained data were used to analyse the behavioural and physiological responses of moose to hunting with dogs. Successful experimental approaches (moose and dog were within 240 m for >10 min) resulted in higher maximum body temperature (Tb, 0.88°C higher) and a mean increase in HR of 24 bpm in moose at the day of the approach compared to the day after. The moose rested on average >90 min longer the day after the approach compared to the day of the approach. The moose travelled on average 4.2 km longer and had a 1.3 m/s higher maximum speed the day of the approach compared to the day after. Our results demonstrate that hunting with dogs increase moose energy expenditure and resting time (and consequently decrease time available for foraging) on an individual level. This could possibly affect body condition and reproduction rates if the hunting disturbances occur frequently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

ABSTRACT: Vehicle collisions with large wildlife provide a serious risk of severe personal injuries. In some countries, there is a common belief that hunting increases this risk because it leads to more active animals and increases roads crossings. We analyzed movements of moose (Alces alces) and frequency of moose road crossings during fall to test if moose altered their behavior during hunting periods compared to other times. We analyzed global positioning system (GPS) data from 172 free‐ranging adult moose (140 females, 32 males) between the end of August and the middle of October 2004–2013, in 7 different areas along Sweden's latitudinal gradient of 57°N–67°N. Female moose either decreased or did not change their movement rates as fall proceeded, and they did not cross roads more in any weeks of the hunting season. Male moose became more active between mid‐September and the beginning of October, which corresponds to the time before the hunting period in southern Sweden and the temporary hunting closure in northern Sweden. There was no overall change in moose movements in relation to hunting activity during fall regardless of region or sex. We found that number of road crossings correlated positively with the rutting period in male moose. Thus, the riskier periods for traffic during fall during the hunting period, based on moose movement, coincided with the rutting activity. We suggest that mitigation actions to reduce moose‐vehicle collisions should make drivers more aware of changes in movement behavior in moose during the rutting season, particularly in southern Sweden. © 2018 The Wildlife Society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding the impact of human activity on prey anti-predator behaviour is becoming increasingly important. For many species, hunting is the dominating mortality cause in areas where predators are functionally extinct. In a controlled field experiment in Northern Sweden devoid of wolves, we exposed adult female moose ( Alces alces) to hunting activity using a dog ( Canis lupus familiaris) to study individual moose anti-predator behaviour. Moose were more active, had larger 24-h activity ranges and left the area after the disturbance. Our study supports the existence of several anti-predator strategies within a species even when predators are absent. A mixed strategy among individuals may be beneficial when a new predator eventually enters the system. Instead of fronting as expected from other study systems, most individuals fled when confronted. We argue that heavily harvested Scandinavian moose may be more adapted to human and bear predation in contrast to the suggested behavioural maladaption towards wolf predation. We build on two major lines of arguments; first, being less defensive, but fleeing when approached by a baying dog which mimics wolf encounters, is likely to increase moose survival compared with the risk to be shot when being defensive and fronting, held at bay. Secondly, we assume that escaping in a tortuous manner, i.e. in an unpredictable way, may increase the chance to undergo persecution by increasing the chance that chaser switches the target animal, especially in areas of high moose density. We recommend future studies to address individual variation and behavioural plasticity in anti-predator behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Helicopters are used for numerous wildlife management and research purposes, but can alter wildlife behaviour and influence baseline data collection. We investigated reactions of GPS-collared moose Alces alces and brown bears Ursus arctos to short-term helicopter approaches by researchers. Moose responded with up to 10 times greater movement rates for up to two hours following a helicopter approach and moved into more rugged terrain. Brown bears decreased their speed and remained within similar habitat types and terrain. The movements were influenced only about two hours and did not influence the size of the activity areas. Contrary to our predictions, brown bears responded with a somewhat calmer response than moose, illustrating response differences in large herbivores and carnivores. This difference in response might be because brown bears are actually less disturbed than moose by direct helicopter approaches or because of a difference in tactical behaviour between brown bears and moose following disturbance. Researchers and managers should thus be cautious in using knowledge from one species to predict or perceive disturbance response in another species or taxa. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The advancement of recreational activities into wildlife habitat calls for a better knowledge about the effects of human-induced disturbances, particularly in systems where humans dominate wildlife mortality. We exposed nine adult free-ranging female moose repeatedly to off-trail backcountry skiing to study moose behavior and habituation using a controlled field experiment in Northern Sweden. Moose response was short-term, but distinct. Moose moved 33-fold faster during the first hour following disturbance, resulting in almost a doubling of the energetic usage per kilogram body weight. Movement rates increased 3 h following disturbances, came along with enlarged activity ranges at the day of disturbance, and resulted in moose leaving the original area. We found no evidence for habituation. Because of the short-term response, the effect of single skiing disturbance events on the overall energy budget of large-bodied animals in good body condition is likely to be negligible. We recommend off-trail skiers to avoid following wildlife tracks because such disturbances bear risk for more severe consequences on wildlife's energy budget if wildlife resists habituation, if an animal's risk perception is high, or when the frequency of disturbance increases. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article presents a study on the effect of hunting on the movements, diurnal activity and activity range of moose in Sweden. The location data used by the researchers were from 64 moose located in Low Alpine, Inland and Coastal areas of the country. The study shows that during the moose hunting season, female moose in Low Alpine, where there is low human population density, had lower movement rates. In addition, the individual movement of female moose in Low Alpine is higher than those in areas with high human population density. The study also suggests that individual moose can perceive human predation risk.

Gestation and lactation have high energetic requirements. Up to three-fourths of the gestation period in moose (Alces alces) overlaps with the food-scarce period in winter. During this period, moose deal with the limited forage resources available through hypometabolism with decreased heart rate and body temperature (T b). Body temperature is also an indicator of oestrus, pregnancy and parturition, which is well documented in several domestic species. In this study, we sought to determine if moose displayed a similar T b pattern during pregnancy and parturition to domesticated ruminants, and if we could detect parturition by combining T b and activity data. We studied the T b pattern of 30 free-ranging adult female moose (≥1.5 years old), equipped with ruminal temperature loggers and GPS collars. We documented a 0.13–0.19°C higher T b in pregnant compared to non-pregnant moose, depending on the study area with the T b difference increasing along a south-north gradient, and a drop in T b and in activity when parturition was imminent. Detection of parturition was highly successful when combining T b and activity data with an accuracy of 91.5%. Our findings demonstrate that T b responses to pregnancy and parturition in a wild capital-breeding ruminant are similar to those of domesticated ruminants. • Body temperature in female moose varies between reproductive states. • Pregnant moose have a higher body temperature than non-pregnant females. • The body temperature of female moose drops when parturition is imminent. • Combined use of body temperature and activity data allows successful detection of parturition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]