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Survey results showed treponemal infection among pet macaques in Southeast Asia, a region with a high prevalence of human yaws. This finding, along with studies showing treponemal infection in nonhuman primates in Africa, should encourage a One Health approach to yaws eradication and surveillance activities, possibly including monitoring of nonhuman primates in yaws-endemic regions.

Foamy viruses (FV) are complex retroviruses that naturally infect all nonhuman primates (NHP) studied to date. Zoonotic transmission of Old World NHP simian foamy viruses (SFV) has been documented, leading to nonpathogenic persistent infections. To date, there have been no reports concerning zoonotic transmission of New World monkey (NWM) SFV to humans and resulting infection. In this study, we developed a Western blot assay to detect antibodies to NWM SFV, a nested PCR assay to detect NWM SFV DNA, and a β-galactosidase-containing indicator cell line to assay replication of NWM SFV. Using these tools, we analyzed the plasma and blood of 116 primatologists, of whom 69 had reported exposures to NWM. While 8 of the primatologists tested were seropositive for SFV from a NWM, the spider monkey, none had detectable levels of viral DNA in their blood. We found that SFV isolated from three different species of NWM replicated in some, but not all, human cell lines. From our data, we conclude that while humans exposed to NWM SFV produce antibodies, there is no evidence for long-term viral persistence.

To determine whether nonhuman primates are infected with influenza viruses in nature, we conducted serologic and swab studies among macaques from several parts of the world. Our detection of influenza virus and antibodies to influenza virus raises questions about the role of nonhuman primates in the ecology of influenza.

Because Gibraltar's macaques (Macaca sylvanus) have frequent contact with humans, we assayed 79 macaques for antibodies to enzootic primate viruses. All macaques were seronegative for herpesvirus B, simian T-cell lymphotropic virus, simian retrovirus, simian immunodeficiency virus, and rhesus cytomegalovirus. Seroprevalence of simian foamy virus reached 88% among adult animals.

Pedicinus spp. parasitize several species of nonhuman primates. This is the first published report confirming the presence of Pedicinus albidus (Rudow) infestation in the free-ranging macaques (Macaca sylvanus) of Gibraltar. The diagnosis of pediculosis was based upon finding adult lice on host animals.

Performing monkeys, a common phenomena in Asia, occupy a unique urban niche that comprises a number of factors influencing the likelihood of cross-species transmission of pathogens. Here we present the first documented evidence of exposure to measles, rubella, and parainfluenza in a population of performing monkeys. Evidence of exposure to these endemic human respiratory viruses in the performing monkeys confirms human-to-primate transmission and suggests the possibility of primate-to-human transmission. Urban animal markets, the likely source of these performing monkeys, may represent an environment conducive to the mixing of animals and pathogens, making these monkeys a potential conduit for infectious agents passing from a variety of animals found in animal markets to humans. The potential significance of these results to human public health and the unique contexts of disease transmission associated with the urban ecology of the performance monkeys are discussed. Given the level of overseas travel, this potential threat is not confined solely to Asia.

Measles is a respiratory virus that is endemic to humans. Human-nonhuman primate (NHP) transmission of the measles virus has been shown to cause significant morbidity and mortality in NHP populations. We investigated serological evidence of exposure to measles virus in two free-ranging populations of macaques at the Bukit Timah (BTNR) and Central Catchment Nature (CCNR) reserves in Singapore and the Swoyambhu Temple in Katmandu, Nepal. At BTNR/CCNR none of the 38 macaques (Macaca fascicularis) sampled were seropositive for antibodies to measles virus. In contrast, at Swoyambhu 100% (n = 39) of the macaques (M. mulatta) sampled were seropositive for antibodies to the measles virus. Here the contrasting seroprevalences of the two sites are analyzed using risk analysis. These case studies show how risk analysis can be used to approach the phenomenon of cross-species pathogen transmission., (Copyright 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Contact between humans and nonhuman primates (NHPs) frequently occurs at monkey temples (religious sites that have become associated with free-ranging populations of NHPs) in Asia, creating the potential for NHP-human disease transmission. In March 2003 a multidisciplinary panel of experts participated in a workshop designed to model the risk of NHP-human pathogen transmission. The panel developed a risk assessment model to describe the likelihood of cross-species transmission of simian foamy virus (SFV) from temple macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to visitors at monkey temples. SFV is an enzootic simian retrovirus that has been shown to be transmitted from NHPs to humans. In operationalizing the model field data, laboratory data and expert opinions were used to estimate the likelihood of SFV transmission within this context. This model sets the stage for a discussion about modeling as a risk assessment tool and the kinds of data that are required to accurately predict transmission., (Copyright 2006 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

The threat of zoonotic transmission of infectious agents at monkey temples highlights the necessity of investigating the prevalence of enzootic infectious agents in these primate populations. Biological samples were collected from 39 rhesus macaques at the Swoyambhu Temple and tested by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, Western blot, polymerase chain reaction, or combination of these tests for evidence of infection with rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV), Cercopithecine herpesvirus 1 (CHV-1), simian virus 40 (SV40), simian retrovirus (SRV), simian T-cell lymphotropic virus (STLV), simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), and simian foamy virus (SFV). Antibody seroprevalence was 94.9% to RhCMV (37/39), 89.7% to SV40 (35/39), 64.1% to CHV-1 (25/39), and 97.4% to SFV (38/39). Humans who come into contact with macaques at Swoyambhu risk exposure to enzootic primateborne viruses. We discuss implications for public health and primate management strategies that would reduce contact between humans and primates.

Animal reservoirs are the most important sources of emerging infectious diseases that threaten human populations. Global travel and tourism bring ever-increasing numbers of humans into contact with animals, increasing the likelihood of cross species transmission of infectious agents. Non-human primates come into contact with humans in a variety of contexts and may harbor infectious agents with zoonotic potential. We investigated the prevalence of infection with enzootic simian viruses among 20 urban performance monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) in Jakarta, Indonesia. This report documents for the first time evidence of infection with four simian viruses in urban performance monkeys. Simian foamy virus was detected by PCR in 52.9% of the macaques. Antibodies to simian retrovirus were detected in 10.5% of the macaques. Antibodies to Cercopithecine Herpesvirus 1, were detected in 5.3% of the macaques. Similarly, antibodies to simian T-cell lymphotropic virus were detected in 5.3% of the macaques. No evidence of infection with simian immunodeficiency virus was detected in these macaques. These results suggest that urban performance monkeys are a reservoir for enzootic simian viruses known to be capable of infecting humans.

We describe the first reported transmission to a human of simian foamy virus (SFV) from a free-ranging population of nonhuman primates in Asia. The transmission of an exogenous retrovirus, SFV, from macaques (Macaca fascicularis) to a human at a monkey temple in Bali, Indonesia, was investigated with molecular and serologic techniques. Antibodies to SFV were detected by Western blotting of serum from 1 of 82 humans tested. SFV DNA was detected by nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) from the blood of the same person. Cloning and sequencing of PCR products confirmed the virus's close phylogenetic relationship to SFV isolated from macaques at the same temple. This study raises concerns that persons who work at or live around monkey temples are at risk for infection with SFV.

On the Indonesian island of Sulawesi, nonhuman primate pets come into frequent contact with humans, presenting the possibility of zoonotic and anthropozoonotic disease transmission. We collected fecal samples from 88 pet macaques representing six of the seven macaque species currently recognized as endemic to Sulawesi (Macaca nigra, M. nigrescens, M. hecki, M. tonkeana, M. maura, and M. ochreata) as well as two non-endemic species (M. fascicularis and M. nemestrina) in order to determine the prevalence of intestinal parasitic infection in this population. Seven taxa of intestinal protozoa (Blastocystis hominis, Iodamoeba bütschlii, Entamoeba coli, Entamoeba hartmanni, Chilomastrix mesnili, Endolimax nana, and Retortamonas intestinalis) and three taxa of nematodes (hookworm, Trichuris spp., and Ascaris spp.) were detected. The overall parasitization rate was 59.1%. Commensal organisms predominated in this population. Parasitization was not statistically correlated with macaque age group, sex, species, or location, or with the owner's level of education. These findings are discussed in the context of primate pet ownership practices in Sulawesi., (Copyright 2004 Wiley-Liss, Inc.)

Foamy viruses (FV) are retroviruses that naturally infect many hosts, including most nonhuman primates (NHPs). Zoonotic infection by primate FV has been documented in people in Asia who reported contact with free-ranging macaques. FV transmission in Asia is a concern, given abundant human-NHP contact, particularly at monkey temples and in urban settings. We have developed three assays capable of detecting the presence of FV in Asian NHP species that are commensal with humans: enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), Western blot assays using recombinant viral Gag protein, and an indicator cell line that can detect macaque FV. The recombinant ELISA correlates very well with the presence of FV sequences detected by PCR. We have used these assays to demonstrate both that FV is highly prevalent among free-ranging NHPs and that seroconversion occurs at a young age in these animals. These assays should also prove useful for large-scale analysis of the prevalence of FV infections in human populations in Asia that are commensal with free-ranging NHPs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]