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Iron ore reserves are normally found within a few meters from the ground surface, and most of the major mines of the world are operating an opencut system, which requires little sophistication, except in terms of the equipment used and the quantities needed to be mined for operations to be cost-effective. This chapter will look at case studies that define how mining of ore is conducted today. Examples of mining sites are described from the major mining areas of the Pilbara in Western Australia and Minas Gerais in Brazil. The deep mining of iron ore is unusual in the modern era, but in northern Sweden, ore is mined from considerable depth largely aided by the application of automation and remote control equipment. Kiruna has been chosen as the example for a more detailed review of underground techniques. However, in order to provide an historical context of the early smaller scale of iron ore mining, the chapter begins by examining two examples of historic underground mining in the United Kingdom, these being the underground mining of iron ore in Cleveland and also the Frodingham Ironstone of North Lincolnshire.

In a mine, knowledge of rock types is often desired as they are important indicators of grade, mineral processing complications, or geotechnical attributes. It is common to model the rock types with visual graphics tools using geologist-generated rock type information in exploration drillhole databases. Instead of this manual approach, this paper used random forest (RF), a machine learning (ML) algorithm, to model the rock type at Erdenet Copper Mine, Mongolia. Exploration drillhole data was used to develop the RF models and predict the rock type based on the coordinates of locations. Data selection and model evaluation methods were designed to ensure applicability for real life scenarios. In the scenario where rock type is predicted close to locations where information is available (such as in blocks being blasted), RF did very well with an overall success rate (OSR) of 89%. In the scenario where rock type was predicted for two future benches (i.e., 30 m below known locations), the best OSR was 86%. When an exploration program was simulated, performance was poor with a OSR of 59%. The results indicate that EMC can leverage RF models for short-term and long-term planning by predicting rock types within drilling blocks or future blocks quite accurately.

La empresa minera MINEREICIS S.A ubicada en el cantón Ponce Enríquez provincia del Azuay radica sus labores en función de la extracción de minerales portadores de oro y cobre, ha detectado oro en los relaves finales, adicionalmente en los concentrados de flotación tienen un porcentaje de arsénico que es penalizado en la comercialización. Expuesto esto se realizó una investigación a detalle en puntos estratégicos de trabajo de interior mina y planta de beneficio durante un tiempo estimado de 8 meses previo la propuesta de optimización de la operación desde un enfoque geometalúrgico que proporciona información para la evaluación de recursos, definir los métodos de explotación y la técnica de beneficio de minerales. Se realizó la caracterización mineralógica del yacimiento muestreando de manera metodológica a las vetas para la formación de un composito para someterlos a los ensayos granulométricos, toda esta información suministró las variables que utiliza la geometalurgia para la optimización de un proceso minero. La hipótesis planteada es: realizando un estudio Geometalúrgico aplicando protocolos de muestreo y análisis respectivos, permitirá optimizar identificar variables de optimización en el proceso metalúrgico de recuperación de oro y concentrado. Marco Referencial: geología minera del Distrito Bella Rica y estado actual de la Planta de Beneficio

The analysis of advantages and disadvantages of the existing classifications of mining method by the way of stoping space supporting in the course of extraction of ores is executed. The new classification of mining methods of ore deposits allowing to capture all range of the applied variants of systems for different mining-and-geological and mining conditions is developed. It is possible to formulate names of mining methods on proposed which allows to present a complex of the productions which are carried out during mining of production blocks.

Marine georesources & geotechnology 2017, 1-16(2017). doi:10.1080/1064119X.2017.1319448, Published by Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, Pa.

BayanObo deposit in Inner Mongolia, an ultra-large REE-Nb-Fe deposit with various ores and mineralized elements, is currently the world’s largest rare earth deposit, and has special mineralization. The deposit has strategic significance in China. Applying the professional software of three-dimension (3D) geological modeling with advanced theories and methods, a 3D visualization model of deposit in the main mining area and east mining area, including 3D engineering model, 3D terrain model, 3D rock mass model and 3D ore bodies model, which clarifies the spatial distribution of REE-Nb-Fe in BayanObo deposit in visualization way, and provides scientific basis for proving deep formation and boundary of ore body, calculating resource reserve, and well developing and protecting rare earth resource.

On the basis of resource endowment and geological features, harsh geological conditions and mining environment for the effective mining and comprehensive utilization of deep resources in Jinchuan Nickel Deposit were systematically analyzed, including high stress, fragmentized ore rock, prevalent deformation, difficult support, complicated rock mechanics and low mining recovery. An integrated technology package has been established for safe, efficient and continuous mining at the huge, complex and deep nickel and cobalt mine by proposing a large-area continuous mining method with honeycomb drives and establishing ground control theory and technology package in high stress and fragmented ore rock, and by developing new backfilling cement material and deep backfilling technology with pipeline transport of high density slurry with coarse aggregate, in order for an efficient exploitation and comprehensive utilization of deep resources in Jinchuan Nickel Mine, hence presenting technological demonstration for the underground mine using cemented undercut-and-fill mining method with stressful, fragmented and rheological rock.

The authors show the basic ways of making hard mineral mining with open pit method more efficient. The article gives a review of research aimed at improvement of open pit mining methods, intensification of mining, enhancement of mine safety and final product quality control (in terms of Bakchar iron ore deposit and coal deposits located in the Kuznetsk and Kansk-Achinsk Basins).

Based on theIIgold ore body in Duolanasayi, some geological features of ore body are introduced. In order to decrease the ore dilution and mining loss rate in practical production process as well as make full use of resource, this paper proposes five mining methods and gives optimal combination of these methods after analyzing the advantage and disadvantage of the mining methods.

Iraq Geological Survey carried out geological investigations on a limestone deposit at SW Najaf area during 2006–2007 to be utilized in Kuffa Cement Plant. Large reserve is estimated with good quality enough to produce 2.3 million tons/year of Portland cement for more than 50 years. The next stage is to use the geological information to prepare mining geological study needed for extractive processes. The results of chemical analysis of samples are used for quantitative mining condition study and estimating industrial reserve by programs RW2004 and RW2006. This procedure resulted in some essential geological and mining recommendations.

[Extract] Mineral exploration endeavors to find ore deposits (i.e., economically viable concentrations of minerals or metals) for mining purposes. Delineation of targets for mineral exploration is the crucial initial stage in a series of mapping activities that may result in ore deposit discovery. That is because mineral deposits are 'freaks' of nature and, thus, vectoring towards ore deposits based on multi-source and multi-scale geoscience exploration data sets is a multi-faceted spatial problem. Therefore, applications of geocomputation, which is "the art and science of solving complex spatial problems with computers" (Xue et al., 2004), and applications of geological concepts of ore genesis are essential in mineral exploration target delineation.

With basics of the resource reproduction and comprehensive extraction of ores have been described, the authors offer mining techniques, based on standard engineering solutions, to convert low quality ores to a quality product in any geological and mining conditions. It is found to be efficient to reproduce low grade georesources with mixed physico-technical and physicochemical technologies. The implementation of the resource-reproducing techniques requires that the baseline design includes the determined conditions for low quality ore re-excavation and that the accepted engineering solutions are realized at all stages of the comprehensive exploitation of a mineral deposit.

Professor John S. Webb of the Department of Mining Geology at the Royal School of Mines, Imperial College, London, took his first PhD student (Tony Millman) to Africa in 1949 to try some of the just-emerging geochemical prospecting techniques. In 1955 I joined the newly-formed Geochemical Prospecting Research Centre in the Department as a PhD student. I too was despatched to Africa to do geochemical prospecting research in the Zambian Copperbelt. This paper is a much-abbreviated account of a detailed exploration geochemical drainage and soil investigation of the dispersion of Cu from the copper-cobalt ore bodies using the relatively primitive analytical techniques of the period. In addition to some science, an attempt is made to give a flavour of the time and place through anecdotes and a description of the way of life. The paper ends with a short account from a current PhD student at Adelaide University of some contemporary exploration geochemical work in Africa and northern Australia.

Sumitomo Metal Mining Co., Ltd. focuses on the "non-ferrous major class" mining company as its business strategy and the Pogo Gold Mine is situated at a very important position to achieve the goal. The mine was started with the grassroots exploration in 1991, as a first exploration project in which Sumitomo Metal Mining has majority share of project. A couple of gold deposits were discovered and defined during the exploration stage and the project was evaluated feasible to develop. The environmental permit process was started in 2000 and completed in 2004, in which especially the ore process flow was designed very carefully to prevent the surrounding nature from any impacts. The intensive construction works were initiated after approval of the environmental permits and twenty months had been spent to start ore processing in February 2006. The mine adopts the drift and fill mining method with paste backfill by using tailings from the ore process. Currently about 2,400tonnes/day of ore are mined and processed, which are above the plan in the feasibility study.

Surface coal mining technology, practice and development of mining systems are introduced since the founding of China. The development of surface coal mining systems can be classified into two stages: shovel-train mining system used as the major mining technology before 1980, combined mining systems have been used since 1980, that is, shovel-truck mining system used as the major overburden removal system and the shovel truck/crusher/conveyor have been utilized as the major coal winning systems. The characteristics of the second stage in area mining methods include outside waste dumping and then gradually inside dumping in the mined out areas. After analyzing the coal occurrences in China, the practice and application of surface mining technology, it is proposed that the attention should be paid to the problems such as coal haulage system layout design and the reliability improvement of the system of shovel/truck/crusher in the future development of surface coal mining.

The authors analyzed various criteria that are used in different classifications of mining methods and systems. It is shown that today’s complex geomechanical situation of mining at large depths and wide application of mobile machinery to mineral exploitation has brought to nothing the erstwhile practical importance of many geotechnologies. The modern trend-based classification of the underground ore mining methods is proposed.

The mining conditions in Yuzhny district of Zapolyarny Mine are reported. The alternative mining technologies for the additionally explored mine field are considered. The results of modeling and evaluation of stress-strain state in rocks under mining by the discussed mining technologies are cited.

Mining projects for mineral resource mining contain in certain cases specific technical and technological solutions, these being the result of the mine’s characteristic spatial position and the geometry of the ore deposit, existing mining works, structures, and terrain relief etc. For the purpose of completion of the mining project, it is necessary to carry out a series of mining and surveying tasks during the pre-project and project stage of mining, as well as during the construction of mining facilities and excavation of mineral resources. Specific features of the project concerning excavation of the remaining reserves of bauxite in the deposit of "Podbracan", and in this way the forthcoming mining and surveying works, are displayed by the integration of the underground mining project into the existing mine chambers, infrastructure structures on the terrain surface and into the open pit. Large number of mining and surveying works will follow the completion of this project, but in the meantime, this paper shows the a priory accuracy assessment of the spatial position of the point, it being the exit point to the existing bench of the open pit at the elevation +420m.

Fault reactivation has been observed at several locations in almost every British coalfield. The movement of faults during mining subsidence has been known for at least 150 years, but the affects and consequences are not widely appreciated by other geologists, engineers, insurers, builders, lawyers and planners. This has lead to widespread damage to land, houses, roads, railways, engineered structures (bridges, tunnels, dams), utilities (sewers, pipelines, cables). Disputed cases of fault reactivation have resulted in lands tribunals and claims for compensation for damage to land and property, often incurring significant financial losses. These sources of data on fault reactivation includes anecdotal accounts, archive information and detailed case examples supported with surveying observations. The reactivation of a fault in an area undergoing mining subsidence may result in the generation of a fault scarp along the ground surface, accompanied by compression or fissuring. Ground deformation caused by reactivated faults varies from subtle flexures across the ground surface to steeply inclined scarps, 3–4 m high and at least 4 km long. In the latter, this may influence the morphology of an entire moorland plateaux and has a contributory role in groundwater flow and the drainage of the landscape, or the initiation (and reactivation) of landslides. Not all types of faults reactivate when subject to mining subsidence stresses. Furthermore, movement along faults does not continue indefinitely. It is usually the principal faults which cross the coalfields and define structural blocks and cells that are more prone to reactivation. Several phases of fault reactivation are possible, during multi-seam (3+) mining operations, separated by periods of relative stability. In some circumstances, such as minewater rebound or residual mining subsidence, further movements along a previously reactivated fault are possible. The objectives of this paper are to provide, for the first time, a comprehensive account of reported and recorded cases of mining-induced fault reactivation in Britain. These have been compiled over a 15 years period, from 1990 to 2005. There are 227 recorded cases of fault reactivation and this is thought to represents a large under estimation of the actual number. This may be attributed to a relatively poor understanding of geology and fault reactivation mechanisms by past investigators. There was a tendency to ignore fault reactivation cases to reduce mining subsidence compensation claims. Furthermore, relatively fewer investigations were undertaken compared to the more conventional widespread mining subsidence observations. Many cases of fault reactivation have been undocumented, not recorded or incorrectly interpreted. This paper also aims to draw attention to potential geotechnical hazards, liabilities, risks and consequences associated with faulted ground.

SUMMARY This paper, based on GIS technology, combines multiple data sets such as three-dimensional seismic data, drilling, geophysical logging and mining geology data to evaluate and predict the stability of the coal seam roof. By analysing every factor affecting the stability of the coal seam roof, we establish an evaluation model of the coal seam roof stability, and we take the first mining area of coal seam 3 of Longgu Mine from the Juye Coalfield as an example to predict the stability of the coal seam roof.

In this paper, mining dynamics is defined as the relationship between the mining rate and movement of mining operations conducted on the benches of a surface mine. This relationship describes the intensity of the pit development in space, in order to meet ore demand at the mill over time. Meeting the mill ore demand is a key factor in optimizing production scheduling in surface mines. Displacement velocity of mining operations within cutbacks, or independent pit units, is introduced in the context of long-term mine planning. Displacement velocity allows the place and time of transition of the mining operations from one independent pit unit to another to be determined as the condition for meeting the mill ore demand. An application using data from Mt Keith Nickel Operations in Western Australia is used to elaborate on the methods presented.

To exploit an ore deposit without unduly impacting the environment is a challenge that can only be met by the concerted efforts of traditionally independent teams working on a mining project. Not only is detailed geology required of geologists to help mine engineers to develop a mine plan that assures generation of the least possible amount of mine waste, but metallurgists also have to select the most environmentally friendly mineral processing schemes, and communicate with environmental engineers with regard to complications that process chemicals may pose on proper mine waste management. Traditional ore deposit models typically emphasize the geological and mineralogical aspects of ore genesis to facilitate exploration for similar deposits. Recent research has shown that potential environmental liabilities such as acid mine drainage and metal leaching can readily be predicted according to deposit types. The choice of mining methods, mineral processing schemes, and decommissioning options are also largely dictated by the composition and setting of an orebody to be mined. Integrating such related information into traditional ore deposit descriptions would lead to the development of comprehensive environmental ore deposit models. The latter would facilitate communication among staff of the varied components of a mine project and aid with the selection of a combination of methods and strategies that would assure minimum environmental risks and impacts, reduce the overall project cost, and enhance sustainable development.

Despite its small area, Albania is rich in mineral deposits. One of these is Kcira's copper ore deposit located about 12 km west of Puka. The core tools for developing and mining in local or regional-scale 3D common earth models for the purpose of targeting new ore or specific geologic relationships are now here. It is now incumbent on the industry, with its wealth of knowledge of specific ore forming processes, its rich archive of 3D data sets, and with a definite need to find deeper ore, to capitalize on this new technology to achieve its expected goals, enhancing the mineral targeting process and ultimately increasing mineral wealth. The emerging geo-modelling softwares for automating the model construction process, are leaving the experts free time to interpret and test exploration criteria. Due to the rapid technological change it is easier to process data and create a 3D model of the mineral body, update in real time, also increasing the accuracy of calculating the quantity of metals in the mineral resource. This article treats the 3D modelling of the copper ore using the Maping and General mining software. This method of modelling ore bodies reduces the time and cost for research and exploitation by facilitating the work of geologists, institutions and companies on their respective functions. Geological modelling is a complex sub-discipline of geology which integrates structural geology, sedimentology, paleo climatology, metallogeny, diagenesis etc. The model that we obtain for this mineral deposit (based on implicit and explicit methods) is important because it allows us to calculate and represent accurately the amount of copper metal, in-citu and mining resources.

Development of mining of firm minerals technological systems is the constantly and multifactorial process having for an object to intensify mining in various mining and geological conditions of the person and the nature safety growing requirements. It is directed on improvement of the interconnected things of the technical and technological support including the organization of mining works.Herewith (in this article, in this report) some results of cooperation of Moscow state mining university and Scientific and Production Association “Hydrotechnology” dealing with designing and improvement of non-blasting, integrated technological systems of mining of ore and coal deposits by the opencast, underground and hybrid method with use of also hydraulically mechanized equipment. Technology options with partial processing and complete mineral enrichment at the mining enterprises are also presented. There are separate and complex technical solutions realized in the mining industry.

The first steps in the production of a metal object are to extract the ore from the mine, process the ore for smelting, and then eventually smelt the ore into metal. As fundamental as these steps may be, they are also the least studied in ancient metallurgical research, as finished metal artifacts (i.e., the end result of the entire process) are usually more interesting to archaeologists than bits of ore or slag. However, the study of the earlier stages is often more enlightening on the social structures of metallurgical groups, on the choices made by ancient metal workers, and more generally about human engagement with ores and metals. In this chapter, the first steps of the metallurgical process are outlined and discussed, with an eye towards the sorts of anthropological and archaeological research questions that can be asked by both archaeologists and archaeometallurgists of ores, mines, furnaces, slag, etc.

Within the rational use of mineral resources in the Pb-Zn mine Crnac, as well as the sequence of ore mining by strike of mineralization and depth of slope, this work presents the possibilities of extensions the ore field Crnac to the surrounding districts, in this case the district Plakaonica II. The applied methodologies of exploration are geological exploration works and mining exploration activities. This work presents the exploration results obtained by interpolation of data from exploratory drill holes and exploratory mining operations in the district Plakaonica II.

Features of the condition of underground mines are presented and basic principles for developing ore mining technology are formulated. It is noted that the main direction for improving mining operations in nonferrous metal deposits is development of mining systems with stowing by solidifying mixtures with waste utilization from mining and metallurgical industries based on the complexes of self-propelled machinery. In order to extract lowvaluable ores under conditions of great depths new variants of breast chamber mining systems, and sublevel caving systems with leaving rock intercalations in the bowels are considered. For ferrous metallurgy mines of the region the expediency is demonstrated for radical reconstruction of technology with development of mining system by sublevel caving with end ore drawing and comprehensive use of self-propelled equipment.

A set of problems is considered for planning underground mining of ore deposits. Achievements are noted in domestic mining science in the field of improving planning methods and design parameters for underground mines. Principles in the development of planning theory for mining enterprises at the contemporary level are formulated.

The exploitation of the South Wales Coalfield, particularly from the last quarter of the nineteenth century onward, was accompanied by numerous instances of instability within spoil heaps and their foundation materials. Sudden failures which were sufficiently rapid to overwhelm property and services and, in some instances, to threaten life, occurred on at least twenty three occasions, details of which are provided. It is believed that thesel included sixteen flow slides, five debris slides and two failures caused by outbursts of groundwater. At five sites, debris flow was a secondary failure mechanism. The locations of these failures are mostly clustered in those parts of the coalfield with the highest relief and with the highest rainfall, although antecedent rainfall conditions for the failures were variable. Most are shown to be associated with active tipping faces, but one flow slide is believed to have occurred on a tip four years after its abandonment and an outburst failure on a tip fifteen years old. The occurrence of rapid failures is shown to mirror the development of the coalfield but has ceased largely as a result of legislation to improve tipping practice, which was enacted following the Aberfan flow slide.