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Lead exposure is still a major concern for occupations that regularly train or work with firearms, such as law enforcement and military personnel. Due to the increasing number of women of fertile age in such professions, there is a strong incentive to monitor lead exposures during firearms training. Personal air sampling was performed during two sessions of a nine-day urban combat training (UCT) course for cadets in the Swedish Armed Forces, one session employing leaded ammunition (leaded scenario) and one session employing unleaded ammunition (unleaded scenario). Blood lead levels (BLLs) were measured before and after the course for 42 cadets and five instructors. During the leaded scenario, the instructors' airborne exposure (geometric mean, GM, 72.0 μg/m 3 ) was higher than that of cadets (GM 42.9 μg/m 3 ). During the unleaded scenario, airborne concentrations were similar for instructors and cadets and considerably lower than during the leaded scenario (GM 2.9 μg/m 3 ). Despite comparably low external lead exposures during the course, we saw a statistically significant increase in systemic exposure for cadets (BLL GM increased from 1.09 to 1.71 μg/dL, p < 0.001). For the five instructors, notable differences were seen depending on task. The largest increase was seen for the two instructors performing close supervision during the leaded scenario (BLL GM increased from 2.41 μg/dL to 4.83 μg/dL). For the remaining three instructors the BLLs were unchanged (BLL GMs were 1.25 μg/dL before the course and 1.26 μg/dL after). None of the participants exceeded the applicable biological exposure limits, but extrapolating our findings shows that instructors in the leaded scenario may reach levels around 10 μg/dL after a year of repeated exposures. We conclude that comparably low airborne concentrations can contribute to the body burden of lead and that additional measures to reduce exposure are warranted, particularly for instructors., (Copyright © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.. All rights reserved.)

The article presents the investigational results of psychophysiological and social-and-psychological adaptation to military service in conditions of the European North of Russia in servicemen called up from different regions. During the first 6 months the positive dynamics concerning the communicative and personal adaptation potential and behavioral regulation was noted in all 239 servicemen. It was established that the representatives from northern region have lower potential possibilities of social-and-psychological adaptation to military service in the European North of Russia than the youths called up from other regions. Social-and-psychological adaptation to military service in the northern conditions was better than in the persons called up from the southern and central regions. The complete adaptation of servicemen at biological level wasn't observed.

In 2002 the analysis of parasitosis incidence in the servicemen of North-Caucasian military district was conducted in order to evaluate the risk of its spread and to optimize the ways of its prevention at the territory studied. One of the most important directions of prophylactic work is the training of specialists (parasitologists, laboratory physicians, epidemiologists, laboratory assistants) in the field of parasitology and early diagnosis of parasitogenic diseases in servicemen.

The stresses of deployment affect both sexes, but some are either mildly or markedly different for women. These include certain female health and gynecological issues, nursing, and pregnancy. Separation from small children, isolation, the possibility of sexual assault, and risks of combat or being taken hostage are concerns for both genders. All of these issues should be addressed before and during deployment to ensure optimal individual and unit functioning and improve retention. Gynecological infections, redeployment for abnormal Papanicolaou smears, and pregnancy while on deployment can be avoided with proper hygiene and planning. There are resources available in pamphlet form, electronically, and on CD-ROM to help prepare service members, leaders, and health care personnel. Improvements in the ability to maintain personal hygiene and to communicate home should benefit both sexes.

At the modern level of society development, on the one hand its Armed Forces are the object that requires the defense from unfavourable effect of environmental factors, on the other hand they are potential source of ecology worsening. The problem of ensuring ecological safety in the army and navy becomes urgent. In order to solve this problem first of all it is necessary to develop the conceptual bases of military ecology. Among all medical sciences the military hygiene by purpose, tasks, subject and objects is the most close to military ecology.

With local wars and armed conflicts the sanitary-epidemiological situation for the troops and local population shows a tendency to worsen. The main objects of the military medical service at the period of deployment are the preventive measures against troops infection from local sources by virus hepatitis A, bacterial dysentery, typhoid, cholera etc. As a rule, combat actions result in communal service destruction, low quality of potable water, soil contamination and worsening sanitary norms and standards. Also, there is a danger of reactivation of the natural centres of infection due to large-scale defence earthworks in the region of operations. The experience of the military medical service in Afghanistan and Chechnya proves, that a multimedia approach to preventive antiepidemic measures is necessary together with the emphasis on the most important actions against infections that represent the biggest danger for the land troops.

Parallel with military physicians in Bulgarian army working and the military orthodox clergy. It is very important factor for success activity soldier's conscious. The author consider, that religious spirit is necessary for soldier and commander. The Moscow's newspaper "Russian world" publish on 23 January, 1913 interview by D-r Socolevsky with military epidemiologist prof. Kraws were the professor said: "The chaplains much help me in the control over the cholera, especially near Chataldga 1912-1913. They saved Bulgaria army from the cholera, this terribly whip." The physicians Sikarsky, Goldmier,Stamatov and others write that the chaplains execute his duty as exemplary hospitals. Command of the military clergy during the period 1912-1918 is Velikoturnovo's bishop losiv (1870-1918). He become ill on the front.

The article discusses the questions of the improvement of field water supply of troops. There is a proposal to create the Service of field water supplies as an element of the Logistic Command subordination, increase the water ration, improve the system of quality water control, create a unique system of expert control, reinforce the units of water supply in field hospitals and hospital bases, make regulations for water regimen of personnel in hot climate regions. There is a conclusion that the problem of water supply needs to be considered by the Command and Research establishments of the Ministry of Defence of Russia.

The article discusses the questions of the marines' activities during the mounting and staging of naval assault operation. The authors describe unfavourable factors of environmental conditions and limitations of manned objects of military technique. There are data concerning the health status and operational ability of the marines depending on characteristic features of various climatic zones, and stages of naval assault operation. The article emphasizes the role of sanitary-epidemiological control over water supplies, meals, and accommodation of servicemen in field conditions.

On the basis of the experience in antiepidemic protection of troops several methods were worked out to make epidemiological estimation of laboratory researches which were conducted in order to disclose the risk factors that provoke infectious diseases. The main attention was focused on the problem of intestinal infections. It was stressed that the practical evaluation of fecal pollution index of water had to be done taking into account the level of infectious morbidity. In unsatisfactory indices of colimetry a threat of diseases in troops is much higher in the regions with frequent intestinal infections. In unfavourable regions with high viral intestinal infections the studies of water must be done after its purification and decontamination in order to reveal the presence of coliphages. On the basis of catering objects the article gives methods for differential estimation of the results of colon bacillus tests depending on epidemiological signification of environmental objects.

The article deals with the occupational problems of pharmacies, discloses the main limitations in the organization of prophylactic measures, stresses the basic trends for the practice of physicians-hygienists. The authors propose to enhance the efficiency of the current control regarding the personnel. Besides all it is necessary to made an object classification of all military pharmacies, and estimate the hygienic and sanitary conditions of personnel. The article stands for the unique method which could estimate these conditions and proposes to make the analysis of the health state of personnel, taking into account age specific rates, sex, conditions of daily life and job performance.

As for prophylactic work, the main efforts of medical service were oriented to the reduction of non-combat medical losses. Prophylactic and current control was conducted taking into account the environmental conditions of the area. The authors make a conclusion that medical service at the initial stage of its activities was not properly ready to accomplish a variety of hygienic missions. It was especially difficult to carry out prophylactic measures aimed at the prevention of diseases and health states which were caused by specific environmental factors.

In the 40th Army the hepatitis A and typhoid morbidity in enlisted personnel of the 1st year service period was 2.5 times higher than in enlisted personnel of the 2nd year service period. The greatest number of these sick cases took place in autumn and winter periods. The seasonal up-grade of shigellosis and acute intestinal infections of non-dysenteric etiology had its beginning in April-May and ended in November-January. Some garrisons had achieved a considerable efficiency in prophylaxis of hepatitis A by 2-3 ml immunoglobulin injections 2 months before the expected up-grade (morbidity reduction by 3-4 times). The experience has shown that the struggle against intestinal anthroponoses had to be executed using a complex approach to its prophylaxis. This work must be done not only by physicians, but also by the representatives of the rear service.

Throughout history, battles, campaigns, and wars have often been decided by diseases, rather than bullets and tacticians. During the Korean War, Korean hemorrhagic fever (KHF) afflicted several thousand allied soldiers and an unknown number of Communist soldiers. This disease, and other members of a closely related group, the hemorrhagic fevers with renal syndrome, represent a continuing worldwide military and civilian threat. Through inexpensive and flexible environmental health measures, and readily available medical surveillance and testing, it is now possible to reduce the risk from this disease. In this paper, we will outline various environmental health measures developed to reduce the risk of contracting KHF and the justification for their use. We will also discuss a medical surveillance and testing program designed to get at-risk and symptomatic individuals to definitive care quickly in order to reduce overall morbidity and mortality.

US medical personnel serving in Ecuador analyzed how the field sanitation procedures of troops employed in Blazing Trails '87 had impact on living conditions and overall health of the troops. Such a situation allowed evaluation of USAR troop training and preparedness in field sanitation. Results indicate that field sanitation training needs to be improved at the unit level.