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Parenting programs aim to improve parenting quality, which may, in turn, support various aspects of child development, including behavior and mental health. However, parenting interventions show considerable heterogeneity in response patterns across different families, demonstrating that they are not one-size-fits-all programs. This variability points to a need for greater understanding of which families benefit most from these interventions and how to improve response among those who do not. Following this literature gap, this study employed a person-centered approach to identify different parenting profiles associated with heterogeneity in treatment responses to a family-based prevention interventions adapted for military families. This study used data from a randomized controlled trial of the ADAPT intervention for 336 US military families in which at least one parent had deployed to war. Latent profile analyses revealed three unobserved parenting profiles among mothers and fathers, reflecting High positive, Moderate positive, and Coercive parenting styles. Latent transition analysis (LTA) suggested that the ADAPT program led to improvements in parenting, particularly among mothers who began the program with moderate or typical levels of parenting skills, and that these positive changes in parenting may help to decrease child externalizing problems. For fathers, the ADAPT program was most effective in preventing declines in positive parenting among those with initially typical levels of positive parenting. Overall, study findings demonstrate considerable heterogeneity in parenting behavior among a sample of military families that is associated with variability in parent responses to the evidence-based parenting program., (© 2024. The Author(s).)

Parental efficacy is an important aspect of parenting and a key outcome in many parenting programs. However, most studies focus on mothers, and less is known about the relationship between coparents' parental efficacy over time following intervention, and how parental distress can impact parental efficacy. The current study (N = 271 heterosexual couples; 162 intervention and 109 control) used a dyadic latent growth model to explore the dependence structure of parental efficacy between couples 2 years after assignment to a military parenting program, After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools or a control condition. Results revealed a significant intervention effect, with both mothers and fathers in the intervention group exhibiting quadratic changes over 2 years, while the control group remained relatively stable. Notably, mothers' baseline emotional distress and fathers' deployment length emerged as predictors in understanding parental efficacy improvement over time. This research underscores the importance of adopting a family systems perspective and considering emotional distress and environmental stressors in designing targeted interventions to support military families and enhance overall well-being., (© 2023 The Authors. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy.)

Military servicemembers face substantial challenges due to war-related trauma exposure, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Individuals with deficits in inhibitory control (IC) may have an increased risk of developing PTSD due to a reduced ability to regulate their cognitive responses to and disengage from trauma-related stimuli. After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT) is a mindfulness-infused parenting program for military families that has also been found to have crossover effects on parental mental health. The present study examined whether fathers' IC at baseline affected their response to this emotional skills-focused intervention and further influenced their PTSD symptoms 1 year later. The sample included 282 male National Guard and Reserve (NG/R) service members who had recently been deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan. Fathers were randomly assigned to either the ADAPT program or a control condition, with IC measured at baseline and PTSD symptoms measured at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Intent-to-treat analyses revealed no significant main effect of the intervention on fathers' PTSD symptoms. However, fathers' IC moderated intervention effects on PTSD symptoms, f 2 = 0.03. The intervention had more beneficial effects on reducing fathers' PTSD symptoms for participants with low IC at baseline. These findings are consistent with compensatory effects in the risk moderation hypothesis, which suggests that prevention or intervention programs are more effective for high-risk subgroups., (© 2021 International Society for Traumatic Stress Studies.)

Previous research has found elevated levels of psychological distress (i.e., posttraumatic stress, depressive and anxiety symptoms) among veterans. Existing theory and evidence show how psychological distress is associated with marital disruptions. Only a few studies, however, have tested the link between psychological distress and couple communication quality in military couples, most of which were cross-sectional and employed self-report measures. The current study investigated whether psychological distress predicts changes in observed communication quality across 1 year in 228 couples consisting of male service members, who were deployed to Iraq and/or Afghanistan, and their nondeployed female partners. Psychological distress was indicated by self-reported posttraumatic stress disorder, depressive, and anxiety symptoms. Communication quality was assessed using observed couple interactions. The results of an actor-partner interdependence model showed that men's psychological distress predicted men's lower communication quality at one year after accounting for baseline communication quality. Women's psychological distress did not predict their communication quality, and each partner's psychological distress did not predict changes in their partner's communication quality over time. Consistent with previous findings on civilian populations, our findings highlight the long-term effects of psychological distress among service members on their communication behaviors with their intimate partners, and emphasize the importance of targeting psychological symptoms of service members following deployment to war. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Anger-related problems have been documented among post-deployed service members who returned home, posing risks to their well-being and increasing distress in their families. Trait mindfulness (acting with awareness, nonjudging, and nonreactivity) has been associated with lower self-reported anger. Using actor-partner interdependence models, we tested the association between trait mindfulness and parental anger observed in parent-child and couple interactions. The sample consisted of 155 dyads of male National Guard/Reserve members who had been recently deployed and returned, and their female non-deployed partners. Results showed that fathers' and mothers' nonreactivity was negatively associated with their own observed anger, indicating that parents who reported higher nonreactivity exhibited lower anger. Mothers' nonreactivity was also negatively associated with observed fathers' anger in the same family such that fathers exhibited lower anger when their female partner reported higher nonreactivity. Nonreactivity facilitates emotion regulation and its cultivation may reduce anger in post-deployed military families., (© 2019 American Association for Marriage and Family Therapy.)

Prior research indicates that children of deployed parents are at risk for emotional problems, suggesting the utility of preventive efforts for military families. Effective parental socialization of children's emotions is protective for children's development, and parental experiential avoidance may impede parental emotion socialization, yet intervention studies in this area are lacking. This study examined the impact of a parenting program, After Deployment Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT), on parental emotion socialization postintervention (6 months postbaseline) and whether intervention effects were moderated by parental experiential avoidance. The sample included 336 families (294 fathers and 313 mothers) with at least 1 deployed parent and a focal child aged 4-12. Families were randomized into either ADAPT (a 14-week group-based intervention) or control group. Self-reported data on parental emotion socialization and experiential avoidance were analyzed using structural equation modeling. Results showed that mothers who were assigned to the intervention had significant improved supportive emotion socialization and reduced nonsupportive emotion socialization at postintervention compared with controls. Mothers with higher levels of experiential avoidance assigned to the intervention group had higher levels of supportive emotion socialization at postintervention. No significant intervention effects were found in fathers. This study provides support for the effects of the ADAPT program on maternal emotion socialization at 6-month postbaseline, and the role of experiential avoidance as a moderator. We discuss findings in relation to the different parental roles that mothers and fathers play in postdeployed families, as well as implications for personalized intervention programming. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).

The current study examines a military family stress model, evaluating associations between deployment-related stressors (i.e., deployment length/number, posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD] symptoms) and parent, child, parenting, and dyadic adjustment among families in which a parent had previously deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan in the recent conflicts. Married families (N = 293) with at least one child between the ages of 4 and 12 were recruited from a Midwestern state. Service members were from the Reserve Component (National Guard or Reserves); fathers (N = 253) and/or mothers had deployed (N = 45) to the recent conflicts in the Middle East. Multiple-method (observations of parenting and couple interactions; questionnaires) and multiple informant measures were gathered online and in the homes of participants, from parents, children, and teachers. Findings demonstrated associations between mothers' and fathers' PTSD symptoms and a latent variable of child adjustment comprising teacher, parent, and child report. Mothers' but not fathers' PTSD symptoms were also associated with dyadic adjustment and parenting practices; parenting practices were in turn associated with child adjustment. The results are discussed in terms of their implications for military family stress research and interventions to support and strengthen parents and families after deployment., (© 2017 Family Process Institute.)

Despite significant stressors facing military families over the past 15 years of wars in Iraq and Afghanistan, no parenting programs adapted or developed for military families with school-aged children have been rigorously tested. We present outcome data from the first randomized controlled trial of a behavioral parent training program for families with a parent deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan. In the present study, 336 primarily National Guard and Reserve families with 4-12-year-old children were recruited from a Midwestern state. At least one parent in each family had deployed to the recent conflicts: Operations Iraqi or Enduring Freedom, or New Dawn (OIF/OEF/OND). Families were randomized to a group-based parenting program (After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT)) or web and print resources-as-usual. Using a social interaction learning framework, we hypothesized an indirect effects model: that the intervention would improve parenting, which, in turn, would be associated with improvements in child outcomes. Applying intent-to-treat analyses, we examined the program's effect on observed parenting, and children's adjustment at 12-months post baseline. Controlling for demographic (marital status, length, child gender), deployment variables (number of deployments), and baseline values, families randomized to the ADAPT intervention showed significantly improved observed parenting compared to those in the comparison group. Observed parenting, in turn, was associated with significant improvements in child adjustment. These findings present the first evidence for the effectiveness of a parenting program for deployed military families with school-aged children.

The stress of multiple deployments and exposure to combat places service members at risk for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), which may detrimentally affect parenting. Evidence-based parenting programs have been successful in promoting adaptive parenting practices among families exposed to stress. However, the effects of preventive interventions on parenting may vary by military parent's PTSD. The current study includes families who participated in a randomized controlled trial of a parenting intervention for military families known as After Deployment, Adaptive Parenting Tools (ADAPT). Families were randomized to either a 14-week, group-based parenting program or a comparison group. Participants included families with 4- to 12-year-old children in which at least 1 parent deployed to Iraq or Afghanistan (N = 336; 945 individuals). Structural equation modeling was used to examine parent self-reported PTSD as a potential moderator of the relationship between intent-to-treat status and effective parenting practices 12 months postbaseline while accounting for baseline effective parenting, length and number of deployments, and family demographics. Father PTSD was a significant moderator, such that the intervention was less effective for fathers who met clinical levels of PTSD. No significant moderation effects were found among mothers. These findings may have important implications for the development of future evidence-based parenting programs. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2018 APA, all rights reserved).)

Military deployment of a parent is a risk factor for children's internalizing and externalizing problems. This risk may be heightened in National Guard and Reserve (NG/R) families who tend to be isolated from other NG/R families and do not benefit from the centralized support system available to active duty families living on military bases. Isolation and trauma-related disorders may complicate the adjustment of military families during reintegration. An evidence-based parent training intervention was modified to meet the unique needs of recently deployed NG/R parents and their spouses, and the modified program was evaluated in a randomized controlled trial. The current study examines engagement and satisfaction with the program. Modifications such as employment of military-connected facilitators sought to maximize engagement in and satisfaction with the program. Engagement and satisfaction were examined between mothers and fathers, as well as between groups led by a military-connected facilitator and those led by civilian facilitators. Significantly greater engagement was noted for groups that were led by a military-connected facilitator (p = .01). There were no differences between genders in attendance rates, though greater positive group experiences were reported by mothers versus fathers (p = .01). Results are discussed in the context of engagement and satisfaction reported for similar programs. Implications for working with military families are also considered. (PsycINFO Database Record, ((c) 2017 APA, all rights reserved).)

Background: Some evidence suggests parents are drawn to media-based interventions over face-to-face interventions, but little is known about the factors associated with parents' use of Internet-based or Internet-enhanced programs, especially among military families. Research is needed to understand characteristics of parents who may be most likely to use online components or attend face-to-face meetings in order to ensure maximum engagement., Objective: In this study, we examined characteristics that predict various patterns of Internet use and face-to-face attendance in a parenting program designed for military families., Methods: An ecological framework guided analysis of differences in patterns of Internet-based use and face-to-face attendance by parents' demographic characteristics (gender, education, employment, and child age), incentives offered, and number of months the parent was deployed. We reported differences in the total number of online components completed over the 14 modules, total number of face-to-face sessions attended, and the use of different types of online components accessed (videos, downloadable handouts, mindfulness exercises, knowledge checks, and downloadable summaries). Then, we computed multinomial logistic regression accounting for nestedness (parents within families) to examine associations between demographic, programmatic, and military-related characteristics and patterns of engagement (use of online components and attendance at face-to-face sessions)., Results: Just over half (52.2%, 193/370) of the participants used the online components at least once, and the majority of participants (73.2%, 271/370) attended at least 1 face-to-face session. An examination of different patterns of participation revealed that compared with those who participated primarily in face-to-face sessions, parents who participated online but had little face-to-face participation were more likely to have received incentives than those who did not (95% CI 1.9-129.7). Among participants who had been deployed, those who had earned a 4-year degree (95% CI 1.0-2.2) and those who had been offered incentives to participate online (95% CI 2.1-58.6) were more likely to be highly engaged in online components and attend face-to-face compared with those who attended primarily face-to-face. However, those with a high number of months of deployment (95% CI 0.6-1.0) were less likely to be in the pattern of highly engaged in online components and face-to-face attendance. Compared with those who participated primarily face-to-face, deployed mothers were about 4 times more likely to engage in moderate online use with face-to-face attendance than deployed fathers (95% CI 1.21-11.83) and participate primarily online (95% CI 0.77-25.20)., Conclusions: Results imply that parents may be drawn to different delivery options of a parenting program (online components vs face-to-face sessions) depending on their education level, incentives to engage in online components, and their military-related experience. Results suggest potential directions for tailoring Internet-based interventions.