Search

Amyloid-β (Aβ)-containing extracellular plaques and hyperphosphorylated tau-loaded intracellular neurofibrillary tangles are neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Although Aβ exerts neuropathogenic activity through tau, the mechanistic link between Aβ and tau pathology remains unknown. Here, we showed that the FcγRIIb-SHIP2 axis is critical in Aβ1-42-induced tau pathology. Fcgr2b knockout or antagonistic FcγRIIb antibody inhibited Aβ1-42-induced tau hyperphosphorylation and rescued memory impairments in AD mouse models. FcγRIIb phosphorylation at Tyr273 was found in AD brains, in neuronal cells exposed to Aβ1-42, and recruited SHIP2 to form a protein complex. Consequently, treatment with Aβ1-42 increased PtdIns(3,4)P2 levels from PtdIns(3,4,5)P3 to mediate tau hyperphosphorylation. Further, we found that targeting SHIP2 expression by lentiviral siRNA in 3xTg-AD mice or pharmacological inhibition of SHIP2 potently rescued tau hyperphosphorylation and memory impairments. Thus, we concluded that the FcγRIIb-SHIP2 axis links Aβ neurotoxicity to tau pathology by dysregulating PtdIns(3,4)P2 metabolism, providing insight into therapeutic potential against AD. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.18691.001, eLife digest In Alzheimer’s disease, damage to neurons in the brain gradually causes memory loss and difficulties with thinking. The main hallmarks of this damage are seen in the accumulation of proteins in and around neurons. First, a protein called amyloid beta forms aggregates outside the cell. This appears to lead to the build up of an abnormal form of a protein called tau inside the cell. These abnormal tau proteins have excessive numbers of phosphate groups attached to them, and so are known as “hyperphosphorylated”. The molecular mechanism underlying amyloid beta’s role in the hyperphosphorylation of tau proteins was not known. Amyloid beta binds to many different receptor proteins – including one called Fc gamma receptor IIb – on the surface of neurons. Kam, Park et al. investigated whether interactions between amyloid beta and Fc gamma receptor IIb might regulate the phosphorylation of tau within neurons. Adding amyloid beta to mouse neurons caused tau proteins to become hyperphosphorylated. However, removing Fc gamma receptor IIb from the neurons, or stopping it from binding to amyloid beta, abolished this effect. When amyloid beta was bound to Fc gamma receptor IIb, the receptor became phosphorylated. This in turn triggered a series of further phosphorylation events, culminating in an increase in the level of a molecule that relays signals from cell receptors – called SHIP2 – inside the neurons. This molecule increases tau phosphorylation when added to neurons. Reducing the activity or amount of SHIP2 in mice that present the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease reduced the hyperphosphorylation of the tau protein in their neurons and restored their memory to normal levels. Kam, Park et al. also looked at samples taken from the brains of human Alzheimer's disease patients. Unlike samples taken from people without Alzheimer’s disease, neurons in these samples contain both phosphorylated Fc gamma receptor IIb and hyperphosphorylated tau proteins. By uncovering the molecules that link amyloid beta with tau hyperphosphorylation, Kam, Park et al.’s results suggest new targets for therapies to treat the symptoms of Alzheimer’s disease. More research is now needed to investigate whether this could lead to the design of new drugs. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.18691.002

The ubiquitin-proteasome system is essential for maintaining protein homeostasis. However, proteasome dysregulation in chronic diseases is poorly understood. Through genome-wide cell-based screening using 5,500 cDNAs, a signaling pathway leading to NF kappa B activation was selected as an inhibitor of 26S proteasome. TNF-alpha increased S5b (HGNC symbol PSMD5; hereafter S5b/PSMD5) expression via NF kappa B, and the surplus S5b/PSMD5 directly inhibited 26S proteasome assembly and activity. Downregulation of S5b/PSMD5 abolished TNF-alpha-induced proteasome inhibition. TNF-alpha enhanced the interaction of S5b/PSMD5 with S7/PSMC2 in nonproteasome complexes, and interference of this interaction rescued TNF-alpha-induced proteasome inhibition. Transgenic mice expressing S5b/PSMD5 exhibited a reduced life span and premature onset of aging-related phenotypes, including reduced proteasome activity in their tissues. Conversely, S5b/PSMD5 deficiency in Drosophila melanogaster ameliorated the tau rough eye phenotype, enhanced proteasome activity, and extended the life span of tau flies. These results reveal the critical role of S5b/PSMD5 in negative regulation of proteasome by TNF-alpha/NF kappa B and provide insights into proteasome inhibition in human disease.

Amyloid-beta (Abeta) neurotoxicity is believed to contribute to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Previously we found that E2-25K/Hip-2, an E2 ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, mediates Abeta neurotoxicity. Here, we report that E2-25K/Hip-2 modulates caspase-12 activity via the ubiquitin/proteasome system. Levels of endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-resident caspase-12 are strongly up-regulated in the brains of AD model mice, where the enzyme colocalizes with E2-25K/Hip-2. Abeta increases expression of E2-25K/Hip-2, which then stabilizes caspase-12 protein by inhibiting proteasome activity. This increase in E2-25K/Hip-2 also induces proteolytic activation of caspase-12 through its ability to induce calpainlike activity. Knockdown of E2-25K/Hip-2 expression suppresses neuronal cell death triggered by ER stress, and thus caspase-12 is required for the E2-25K/Hip-2-mediated cell death. Finally, we find that E2-25K/Hip-2-deficient cortical neurons are resistant to Abeta toxicity and to the induction of ER stress and caspase-12 expression by Abeta. E2-25K/Hip-2 is thus an essential upstream regulator of the expression and activation of caspase-12 in ER stress-mediated Abeta neurotoxicity.

The ubiquitin/proteasome system has been proposed to play an important role in Alzheimer's disease (AD) pathogenesis. However, the critical factor(s) modulating both amyloid-beta peptide (Abeta) neurotoxicity and ubiquitin/proteasome system in AD are not known. We report the isolation of an unusual ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme, E2-25K/Hip-2, as a mediator of Abeta toxicity. The expression of E2-25K/Hip-2 was upregulated in the neurons exposed to Abeta(1-42) in vivo and in culture. Enzymatic activity of E2-25K/Hip-2 was required for both Abeta(1-42) neurotoxicity and inhibition of proteasome activity. E2-25K/Hip-2 functioned upstream of apoptosis signal-regulating kinase 1 (ASK1) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) in Abeta(1-42) toxicity. Further, the ubiquitin mutant, UBB+1, a potent inhibitor of the proteasome which is found in Alzheimer's brains, was colocalized and functionally interacted with E2-25K/Hip-2 in mediating neurotoxicity. These results suggest that E2-25K/Hip-2 is a crucial factor in regulating Abeta neurotoxicity and could play a role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.

Amyloid-β (Aβ) induces neuronal loss and cognitive deficits and is believed to be a prominent cause of Alzheimer’s disease (AD); however, the cellular pathology of the disease is not fully understood. Here, we report that IgG Fcγ receptor II-b (FcγRIIb) mediates Aβ neurotoxicity and neurodegeneration. We found that FcγRIIb is significantly upregulated in the hippocampus of AD brains and neuronal cells exposed to synthetic Aβ. Neuronal FcγRIIb activated ER stress and caspase-12, and Fcgr2b KO primary neurons were resistant to synthetic Aβ-induced cell death in vitro. Fcgr2b deficiency ameliorated Aβ-induced inhibition of long-term potentiation and inhibited the reduction of synaptic density by naturally secreted Aβ. Moreover, genetic depletion of Fcgr2b rescued memory impairments in an AD mouse model. To determine the mechanism of action of FcγRIIb in Aβ neurotoxicity, we demonstrated that soluble Aβ oligomers interact with FcγRIIb in vitro and in AD brains, and that inhibition of their interaction blocks synthetic Aβ neurotoxicity. We conclude that FcγRIIb has an aberrant, but essential, role in Aβ-mediated neuronal dysfunction.

Background The nuclear inclusion a (NIa) protease of turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) is responsible for the processing of the viral polyprotein into functional proteins. NIa was previously shown to possess a relatively strict substrate specificity with a preference for Val-Xaa-His-Gln↓, with the scissile bond located after Gln. The presence of the same consensus sequence, Val12-His-His-Gln15, near the presumptive α-secretase cleavage site of the amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide led us to hypothesize that NIa could possess activity against Aβ. Methodology/Principal Findings Western blotting results showed that oligomeric as well as monomeric forms of Aβ can be degraded by NIa in vitro. The specific cleavage of Aβ was further confirmed by mass spectrometry analysis. NIa was shown to exist predominantly in the cytoplasm as observed by immunofluorescence microscopy. The overexpression of NIa in B103 neuroblastoma cells resulted in a significant reduction in cell death caused by both intracellularly generated and exogenously added Aβ. Moreover, lentiviral-mediated expression of NIa in APPsw/PS1 transgenic mice significantly reduced the levels of Aβ and plaques in the brain. Conclusions/Significance These results indicate that the degradation of Aβ in the cytoplasm could be a novel strategy to control the levels of Aβ, plaque formation, and the associated cell death.

Time-resolved transcriptome analysis of early pou5f1 mutant zebrafish embryos identified groups of developmental regulators, including SoxB1 genes, that depend on Pou5f1 activity, and a large cluster of differentiation genes which are prematurely expressed. Pou5f1 represses differentiation genes indirectly via activation of germlayer-specific transcriptional repressor genes, including her3, which may mediate in part Pou5f1-dependent repression of neural genes. A dynamic mathematical model is established for Pou5f1 and SoxB1 activity-dependent temporal behaviour of downstream transcriptional regulatory networks. The model predicts that Pou5f1-dependent increase in SoxB1 activity significantly contributes to developmental timing in the early gastrula. Comparison to mouse Pou5f1/Oct4 reveals evolutionary conserved targets. We show that Pou5f1 developmental function is also conserved by demonstrating rescue of Pou5f1 mutant zebrafish embryos by mouse POU5F1/OCT4., The transcription factor Pou5f1/Oct4 controls pluripotency of mouse embryonic inner cell mass cells (Nichols et al, 1998), and of mouse and human ES cell lines (Boiani and Scholer, 2005). Although Pou5f1/Oct4-dependent pluripotency transcriptional circuits and many transcriptional targets have been characterized, little is known about the mechanisms by which Pou5f1/Oct4 controls early developmental events. A detailed understanding of Pou5f1/Oct4 functions during mammalian blastocyst and gastrula development as well as studies of the temporal changes in the Pou5f1/Oct4-regulated networks are precluded by the early lineage defects in pou5f1/oct4 mutant mice. To investigate Pou5f1-dependent transcriptional circuits in developmental control, we used the zebrafish (Danio rerio) as a genetic and experimental model representing an earlier state of vertebrate evolution. Zebrafish have one pou5f1/pou2 gene (Takeda et al, 1994) orthologous to the mammalian gene (Niwa et al, 2008; Frankenberg et al, 2009). Both fish and mammalian orthologs are expressed broadly in tissues giving rise to the embryo proper during blastula and early gastrula stages, as well as in the neural plate (Belting et al, 2001; Reim and Brand, 2002; Downs, 2008). Zebrafish pou5f1 loss-of-function mutant embryos, MZspg (abbreviated ‘MZ'), are completely devoid of maternal and zygotic Pou5f1 activity (Lunde et al, 2004; Reim et al, 2004). MZ embryos have gastrulation abnormalities (Lachnit et al, 2008), dorsoventral patterning defects (Reim and Brand, 2006), and do not develop endoderm (Lunde et al, 2004; Reim et al, 2004). In contrast to Pou5f1/Oct4 mutant mice, which are blocked in development due to loss of inner cell mass, MZ mutant embryos are neither blocked in development nor display a general delay. Therefore, zebrafish present a good model system to identify specific transcriptional targets of Pou5f1 during development. Our study aims to understand the structure, regulatory logic, and developmental temporal changes in the Pou5f1-dependent transcriptional network in the context of an intact embryo. Therefore, we investigated transcriptome changes in MZ compared with WT zebrafish by microarray analysis at 10 distinct time-points during development, from ovaries to late gastrulation. We identified changes in Pou5f1 target gene expression both with respect to their expression level and temporal behavior. We used correlation analysis to identify clusters of target genes enriched for genes with developmentally regulated expression profiles. This correlation analysis revealed a cluster of genes, which were not activated or were significantly delayed in MZ. Interestingly, there was also a large gene cluster with premature onset of expression in MZ. Several targets activated by Pou5f1 encode known repressors of differentiation (RODs), of which we analyzed her3 in detail. Pou5f1 also activates several SoxB1 group transcription factors, which are known to act together with Pou5f1 in mammalian systems. Among the large group of genes prematurely activated in MZ, many genes encode developmental regulators of differentiation normally acting during organogenesis (promoters of differentiation—PODs). Our analysis of potential direct transcriptional interactions by suppression of translation of intermediate zygotic Pou5f1 or SoxB1 targets, enabled us to distinguish Sox-dependent and independent subgroups of the Pou5f1 transcriptional network. Interestingly, tissue-specific expression of Pou5f1 targets correlated with their regulation by Sox2, with Sox-dependent targets being mostly localized to ectoderm and neuroectoderm, whereas Sox-independent targets localized to mesendoderm of the developing zebrafish embryo. Further, SoxB1 independent Pou5f1 targets (for example foxD3) differ from SoxB1-dependent targets (e.g her3) in temporal dynamics of expression. Most Sox-independent direct Pou5f1 targets in WT reach maximal expression levels soon after midblastula transition (MBT) at 3–4 h postfertilization (hpf). In contrast, genes depending both on Sox2 and Pou5f1 tend to have a biphasic temporal expression curve or are activated with >2 h delay after MBT to reach maximum levels at 6–7 hpf only. To better understand the impact of our findings on Pou5f1/SoxB1-dependent versus Pou5f1-only regulation on developmental mechanisms, we built a small dynamic network model that links the temporal control of target genes to regulatory principles exerted by Pou5f1 and SoxB1 proteins (Figure 6A). The model is based on ordinary differential equations, and parameters were determined by a fit to the WT and MZ gene expression data. The optimized model highlights two qualitatively different temporal expression modes of Pou5f1 downstream targets: monophasic for targets depending only on Pou5f1 (foxd3), and biphasic for Pou5f1- and SoxB1-dependent targets (sox2 and her3; Figure 6B). To test whether the model is also able to correctly predict a different genetic condition, we simulated the M mutant, which is lacking maternal Pou5f1, but gradually rescued by the paternal pou5f1 contribution after MBT (Figure 6B, blue, dashed curve). The model predicts an overall shift in the developmental program. Most importantly, the sox2 and her3 expression is rescued with a delay of about 2 h. The model predictions were checked experimentally by quantitative RT–PCR (Figure 6B, blue dots). Most predictions are in good agreement with the experimental data, for example the delayed rescue of the sox2 and her3 temporal expression profile. With respect to the ‘POD' nr2f1, the model correctly predicts the efficient downregulation by zygotic targets of Pou5f1 (Figure 6B). We identified an evolutionary conserved core set of Pou5f1 targets, by comparing our gene list with the lists of mouse Pou5f1/Oct4 targets (Loh et al, 2006; Sharov et al, 2008). The evolutionary conservation suggests equivalent Pou5f1 functions during the pregastrulation and gastrulation period of vertebrate embryogenesis. Therefore, we tested whether mouse Pou5f1/Oct4 was able to rescue MZ embryos. Injection of mRNA encoding mouse Pou5f1/Oct4 into MZ embryos (Figure 8A) was able to restore normal zebrafish development to an extent comparable with zebrafish pou5f1/pou2 mRNA (Figure 8B and C). The significant overlap between zebrafish and mammalian Pou5f1 targets together with the ability of mouse Pou5f1/Oct4 to functionally replace the zebrafish Pou5f1/Pou2 (Figure 8A–C), suggests that the mammalian network may have evolved from a basal situation similar to what is observed in teleosts. We propose models that emphasize the evolution of Pou5f1-dependent transcriptional networks during development of the zebrafish (Figure 8D) and mammals (Figure 8E). Our representation highlights the evolutionary ancient germlayer-specific subnetworks downstream of Pou5f1, which are presumably used for controlling the timing of differentiation during gastrulation in all vertebrates (Figure 8D and E, black arrows). As the Pou5f1 downstream regulatory nodes revealed in our zebrafish model are likely conserved across vertebrates, we envision that their knowledge will contribute to the effort of directing differentiation of pluripotent stem cells to defined cell fates., The transcription factor POU5f1/OCT4 controls pluripotency in mammalian ES cells, but little is known about its functions in the early embryo. We used time-resolved transcriptome analysis of zebrafish pou5f1 MZspg mutant embryos to identify genes regulated by Pou5f1. Comparison to mammalian systems defines evolutionary conserved Pou5f1 targets. Time-series data reveal many Pou5f1 targets with delayed or advanced onset of expression. We identify two Pou5f1-dependent mechanisms controlling developmental timing. First, several Pou5f1 targets are transcriptional repressors, mediating repression of differentiation genes in distinct embryonic compartments. We analyze her3 gene regulation as example for a repressor in the neural anlagen. Second, the dynamics of SoxB1 group gene expression and Pou5f1-dependent regulation of her3 and foxD3 uncovers differential requirements for SoxB1 activity to control temporal dynamics of activation, and spatial distribution of targets in the embryo. We establish a mathematical model of the early Pou5f1 and SoxB1 gene network to demonstrate regulatory characteristics important for developmental timing. The temporospatial structure of the zebrafish Pou5f1 target networks may explain aspects of the evolution of the mammalian stem cell networks.

Accumulation of expanded polyglutamine proteins is considered to be a major pathogenic biomarker of Huntington disease. We isolated SCAMP5 as a novel regulator of cellular accumulation of expanded polyglutamine track protein using cell-based aggregation assays. Ectopic expression of SCAMP5 augments the formation of ubiquitin-positive and detergent-resistant aggregates of mutant huntingtin (mtHTT). Expression of SCAMP5 is markedly increased in the striatum of Huntington disease patients and is induced in cultured striatal neurons by endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress or by mtHTT. The increase of SCAMP5 impairs endocytosis, which in turn enhances mtHTT aggregation. On the contrary, down-regulation of SCAMP5 alleviates ER stress-induced mtHTT aggregation and endocytosis inhibition. Moreover, stereotactic injection into the striatum and intraperitoneal injection of tunicamycin significantly increase mtHTT aggregation in the striatum of R6/2 mice and in the cortex of N171-82Q mice, respectively. Taken together, these results suggest that exposure to ER stress increases SCAMP5 in the striatum, which positively regulates mtHTT aggregation via the endocytosis pathway.

Calsenilin/DREAM/KChIP3 was identified as a calcium-binding protein that interacts with presenilins, serves as a transcription repressor, and binds to the A-type potassium channel. In this study, we hypothesized that calsenilin might be involved in the neurodegeneration of Alzheimer's disease and examined calsenilin expression in Alzheimer's disease. Calsenilin levels were elevated in the cortex region of Alzheimer's patient brains and in the neocortex and the hippocampus of Swedish mutant beta-amyloid precursor protein transgenic mice brains. Induction of calsenilin was also observed in the activated astroglia as well as in the neurons surrounding beta-amyloid (Abeta)- and Congo red-positive plaques. Exposing cultured cortical and hippocampal neurons to Abeta42, an amyloid-beta peptide whose deposition in the brain is a characteristic of Alzheimer's disease, induced both calsenilin protein and mRNA expression, and cell death. Moreover, blocking the calsenilin expression protected the neuronal cells from Abeta toxicity. These findings suggest that chronic up-regulation of calsenilin may be a risk factor for developing Alzheimer's disease, perhaps by facilitating calsenilin-mediated neurodegeneration.