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Visie op de (maakbare) natuur : cognitieve, ethische en esthetische aspecten

Introduction of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), specifically in an intercultural learning environment, creates both challenges and benefits. Among the challenges are the coordination of different attitudes, styles of communication, and patterns of behaving. Among the benefits are the sharing of culturally diverse knowledge, hands-on preparation for working in an international climate. Five empirical studies reported in this dissertation were conducted to identify and respond to the cultural issues influencing collaborative learning in both face-to-face and online modes of communication. The ultimate goal of the fives taken together was to develop an instructional script for fostering collaboration and bridging intercultural differences in culturally diverse groups engaged in CSCL. The total sample for the present research included over 500 students representing a total of 55 countries. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were undertaken in the studies. The findings of this dissertation suggest that the scripting approach can foster collaboration and bridge intercultural differences in culturally diverse groups working in a CSCL environment.

Introduction of computer-supported collaborative learning (CSCL), specifically in an intercultural learning environment, creates both challenges and benefits. Among the challenges are the coordination of different attitudes, styles of communication, and patterns of behaving. Among the benefits are the sharing of culturally diverse knowledge, hands-on preparation for working in an international climate. Five empirical studies reported in this dissertation were conducted to identify and respond to the cultural issues influencing collaborative learning in both face-to-face and online modes of communication. The ultimate goal of the fives taken together was to develop an instructional script for fostering collaboration and bridging intercultural differences in culturally diverse groups engaged in CSCL. The total sample for the present research included over 500 students representing a total of 55 countries. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were undertaken in the studies. The findings of this dissertation suggest that the scripting approach can foster collaboration and bridge intercultural differences in culturally diverse groups working in a CSCL environment.

De afgelopen 50 jaar is de veehouderij in schaalgrootte toegenomen en geïntensiveerd. Tegelijkertijd zijn Westerse samenlevingen meer verstedelijkt en hebben minder mensen familieleden in de landbouw. Als gevolg daarvan hebben weinig burgers kennis van of directe ervaring met de landbouw. Duurzame ontwikkeling is een omstreden concept en wordt in veel gebieden bediscussieerd en op verschillende manieren gedefinieerd. Deze studie richt zich op burgerpercepties van de veehouderij om inzicht te krijgen in de sociaal-culturele aspecten van een duurzame veehouderij.

De afgelopen 50 jaar is de veehouderij in schaalgrootte toegenomen en geïntensiveerd. Tegelijkertijd zijn Westerse samenlevingen meer verstedelijkt en hebben minder mensen familieleden in de landbouw. Als gevolg daarvan hebben weinig burgers kennis van of directe ervaring met de landbouw. Duurzame ontwikkeling is een omstreden concept en wordt in veel gebieden bediscussieerd en op verschillende manieren gedefinieerd. Deze studie richt zich op burgerpercepties van de veehouderij om inzicht te krijgen in de sociaal-culturele aspecten van een duurzame veehouderij.

Key words: Qanat, land and water, sustainability, Industrial and reflexive modernity This PhD thesis is concerned with the causes and consequences of the environmental crisis and explores possible trajectories towards sustainable land and water management in Iran and other countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The basic assumption underlying the conceptual framework of this thesis is that soil and water technologies, social institutions and environmental mentalities are strongly interconnected; they co-evolve, shaping and reshaping one another in the process. The main research question concerns the changes within this network of technologies, institutions and mentalities that are required for a successful transition from industrial modernity to what sociologists like Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens and Scott Lash have called ‘reflexive’ modernity. In order to examine the possibilities and problems of a reflexive turn in land and water management in Iran and other MENA-countries, large-scale empirical studies were conducted among farmers and village informants, soil and water experts, and policymakers.

Key words: Qanat, land and water, sustainability, Industrial and reflexive modernity This PhD thesis is concerned with the causes and consequences of the environmental crisis and explores possible trajectories towards sustainable land and water management in Iran and other countries of the Middle East and North Africa (MENA). The basic assumption underlying the conceptual framework of this thesis is that soil and water technologies, social institutions and environmental mentalities are strongly interconnected; they co-evolve, shaping and reshaping one another in the process. The main research question concerns the changes within this network of technologies, institutions and mentalities that are required for a successful transition from industrial modernity to what sociologists like Ulrich Beck, Anthony Giddens and Scott Lash have called ‘reflexive’ modernity. In order to examine the possibilities and problems of a reflexive turn in land and water management in Iran and other MENA-countries, large-scale empirical studies were conducted among farmers and village informants, soil and water experts, and policymakers.

Deze quickscan geeft inzicht in de wijze waarop op dit moment kennisontwikkeling, kennisdeling en toepassing binnen de NME sector tot stand komt. In deze quicksan is de cultuureducatie verder uitgewerkt

Deze quickscan geeft inzicht in de wijze waarop op dit moment kennisontwikkeling, kennisdeling en toepassing binnen de NME sector tot stand komt. In deze quicksan is de cultuureducatie verder uitgewerkt

The world is a more dangerously divided place today than it was at the end of the Cold War. This despite the spread of free trade and the advent of digital technologies that afford a degree of global connectivity undreamed of by science fiction writers fifty years ago. What is it that continues to drive people apart when cooperation is so clearly in everyone's interest? Are we as a species doomed to perpetual misunderstanding and conflict? Find out in Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. A veritable atlas of cultural values, it is based on cross-cultural research conducted in seventy countries for more than thirty years. At the same time, it describes a revolutionary theory of cultural relativism and its applications in a range of professions. Fully updated and rewritten for the twenty-first century, this edition: * Reveals the unexamined rules by which people in different cultures think, feel, and act in business, family, schools, and political organizations * Explores how national cultures differ in the key areas of inequality, collectivism versus individualism, assertiveness versus modesty, tolerance for ambiguity, and deferment of gratification * Explains how organizational cultures differ from national cultures, and how they can--sometimes--be managed * Explains culture shock, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences in language and humor, and other aspects of intercultural dynamics

The world is a more dangerously divided place today than it was at the end of the Cold War. This despite the spread of free trade and the advent of digital technologies that afford a degree of global connectivity undreamed of by science fiction writers fifty years ago. What is it that continues to drive people apart when cooperation is so clearly in everyone's interest? Are we as a species doomed to perpetual misunderstanding and conflict? Find out in Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. A veritable atlas of cultural values, it is based on cross-cultural research conducted in seventy countries for more than thirty years. At the same time, it describes a revolutionary theory of cultural relativism and its applications in a range of professions. Fully updated and rewritten for the twenty-first century, this edition: * Reveals the unexamined rules by which people in different cultures think, feel, and act in business, family, schools, and political organizations * Explores how national cultures differ in the key areas of inequality, collectivism versus individualism, assertiveness versus modesty, tolerance for ambiguity, and deferment of gratification * Explains how organizational cultures differ from national cultures, and how they can--sometimes--be managed * Explains culture shock, ethnocentrism, stereotyping, differences in language and humor, and other aspects of intercultural dynamics

Right now, we slightly shift the perspective and unfold a map of the book. It shows an outline of all the coming chapters, in order of appearance. Consider it as a preview, a summary in anticipation, but also as a methodological analysis of the book's structure, therefore a supplement to the paragraphs above. This map can be used every now an then while reading the book - use it as reader's guide. The introductory paragraphs on the diverse parts of the book will be repeated on the proper places. The book can be divided in three parts: theory of knowledge, case studies on cultures of users and planners, and identity theory.1.3.1. First part: theoretical frame in three partsThe first part consists in turn of three chapters: a historical perspective, a disciplinary perspective and a conceptual perspective. The three together can be labelled the general theoretical frame of the book, the frame from which the case studies start, and from which the identity theory is constructed. The first part sketches briefly the historical development towards post- modernism and post- modern views on theory, science,culture. Kant's Kritik der reinen vernunft is the starting point of this story, as his Kritik der praktischen vernunft will finish it. Key figures in the history of ideas towards post- modernism are discussed, and since post- modernism itself is not a disciplinary matter, people belonging to different disciplines are mentioned. The historical sketch aims at giving an insight in the development of ideas and simultaneously in the ideas themselves. Therefore, the historical perspective is a first step in the construction of the theoretical frame. Since the disciplines we situate ourselves in -spatial planning, urban planning, landscape architecture- are not yet satiated with post- modern thought, we considered it all the more useful to add such an historical perspective. The frame of the frame could be perceived absent without such an introduction. The second part of the theory is a disciplinary perspective on the types of post- modern thought we selected to use here, selected as useful answering our research question. .As said earlier, a combination of discourse studies, anthropology and semiotics is used. All three of them are useful in studying processes of interpretation and communication in cultures, against a background of social construction of worlds. All three of them have early and late modernist variants, and what we try to do in the disciplinary perspective, is give an idea of the presence of the developments towards post- modernism in the three intellectual traditions. This way, we locate our theoretical frame more precisely in these traditions, in the post- modem variants of them, at the moment the dominant ones. This way, the frame is defined more clearly, its construction is brought one step further.Last part of the theory is a conceptual perspective. We draw the consequences of the theoretical frame for the content of a number of concepts essential in the reasoning in the following chapters, essential in the understanding of the case studies too. Concepts like power, interpretation and more will receive a first interpretation in the light of the theory, and this interpretation is part of the theory construction itself. One could say that the historical and disciplinary contexts outlined in the first parts, are shown to define a number of key concepts used later on to look at spatial planning and design and create new theories there. In order to smoothen this process, this theoretical transition, we look ahead too, and make a first sketch of theoretical frames in planning and design that result from the use of these concepts defined in this post- modem way.1.3.2. Second part: three case studiesNext, second major part of the book, come the case studies, three in number : one on parks in Almere, a second one on small allotment gardens in Wageningen, the third on a new city district in Utrecht. All three of them are located in Holland. Nonetheless, we try to look for generally valid mechanisms in the signification of place, history and history in place in these Dutch case studies. In the case studies, a constant alternation between empiry and theory is strived for, by which we mean that we try to study the empirical situation at hand from our theoretical perspective, and develop the theory at the same time. In the text, this is translated as an alternation of more descriptive and more theoretical paragraphs. Theoretical paragraphs can be inductively or deductively produced, the first way of theory production deriving theory from the empirical situation, the second way deriving theory from theory and looking for confirmation of the new theory in the empirical situation.The Almere case is studying the cultures of the users, the pathways of signification of place, history and historical place in the users of a place. We investigated how people attribute meaning to their environment, to history and to history in their environments, and tried to list, inductively and deductively, the most important mechanisms in this respect. One can say that it is mostly semiotic in nature. The second case study, on the Wageningen gardens, is more anthropological. Individual significations of and history form a starting point, but afterwards the features of the gardeners as a group are at stake, as well as the significations of the place by other groups, and the interactions between gardeners and the rest. Also, the planning system -at a 10 cal level- enters the picture. The interactions between, gardeners and planners are studied, and the interactions between gardeners and other stakeholders within the planning arena designed by official planners. The third case study, on Leidsche Rijn Utrecht, is mainly focussed on the cultures within the planning system: professional cultures, organisational cultures, disciplinary cultures, their interactions, their constructions of place and history, the influence of their interactions on the final plan. This way, the three case studies span the range from individual user signification to groupsignification,and from user culture to planning culture.In the three case studies, a move from users to planners is made. The same relativist and interpretive perspective is used to look at the groups involved in the planning system and the groups using or potentially using the place one is talking about. Using this perspective, interpreting the users signification and the planners and designers signification as culturebased, and interpreting the roles of history in a materialised plan as the result of interactions between all these cultures, implies the introduction of a long list of socio- cultural factors as relevant for planning with history. And a long list of uncertainties and discontinuities. A new view on the limits of planning -and therefore on its characteristics and opportunities- can emerge from this new starting point.1.3.3. Third part: identity theory in threefoldThe third part of the book, the most extensive one, is in the first place theoretical, be it that a lot of empirical examples are given and a few case studies are incorporated. One can say that generally speaking, induction and deduction are combined, the emphasis being on deduction. Again, three parts can be distinguished: one concerning identity construction in all cultures, one focussed on planning cultures and the role of history, a third part being an extensive but rather illustrative case study on history and planning in Ukraine. In the pages on identity construction in all cultures, the cultures of users and of planners, we chose the identity concept to organise the relations between culture, labelled group identity, cultural image of place, named spatial identity, and cultural construction of history, here named image of history. AU three identities are seen as interrelated within a culture, mutually defining each other in a triangular relation. AU aspects of this triangular scheme of identity formation as social construction, are investigated separately. Also the conceptual embedding of the scheme and the embedding of the identity constructions of one group in the context of a society with other groups constructingidentities,are treated. The significations of place and history that were uncovered in the case studies, can gain importance if they function in processes of identity construction as represented in the schemes. More cultural factors affecting the potential use of history in planning are therefore uncovered in constructing these schemes. In this case the factors can be called potential sensibilities more significant in a planning perspective, since histories and places are shown to be potentially essential in the self- definition of groups. And a planning perspective can expected to take into account group preferences and sensibilities.The pages on planning culture and the role of history and historical knowledge can be summarized as an attempt to give an outline of a planning system :fromour interpretive perspective -a redefinition of a planning system in post- modern terms. In this drawing, the roles of knowledge and of historical knowledge are analysed. Of ten, the Dutch planning system serves as an example, but once more we are not primarily interested in the specificity of this case. In our analysis of the roles of historical knowledge in planning, several metaphors are used. Several planning metaphors (planning as a game, as...) are combined to unravel more mechanisms of the planning system, to unravel more potential roles of history in the system. In doing so, we aim at giving a more complete picture of the forces working on the constructions of place and history featuring in the cultures of planners and users. In the game metaphor e.g the characteristics of a game define a number of forces co- determining the outcome, the actual roles of histories in a plan. And the same goes for the other metaphors. What happens in the planning process to the images of history and place present in the cultures of planners and users can be better understood while using a combination of metaphors in a postmodern perspective. And such an understanding is necessary to give realistic recommendations later on concerning the potential roles of history to improve -urban- plans. One has to know the triangles and what happens to them in the planning process.In the final case, on spatial planning and history in Ukraine, focussing on Kiev, the capital, we do not intend to uncovermuch new mechanisms on significations of place and history and their roles in a planning system.We intend the case to be rather illustrative, showing the constructions of place and history by the users and the state, as well as the roles of histories and heritage in the actual planning practice. Interactions between cultures looking for an identity and a state looking for an identity, trying to impose it, are studied, as are the powers working on all these histories and identities in the planning system. An overview is given of the historical building blocks used by the identities, of the identities using the building blocks, and an outline is made of the attempts of the state to impose a new frame of identification for all the identities under its rule. This analysis is followed by a brief description of planning practice, where in the planning games not too much remains of the historical preferences of the user groups and even of the state itself.In the diverse chapters we labelled identity theory, the concept of identity was only used to organise the links between culture, place and history. Culture was defined in a semiotic way, as a group distinct by its signification of the world, as this typical signification itself, and cultures were identified among the users of a place and among the groups involved one way or another in the planning system. The design disciplines were included in the planning system, which is therefore more than the planning disciplines.1.3.4. About the general conclusionsAbout the general conclusions we do not want to say too much here,but we can point already at the importance assigned to the numerous types of uncertainty, discontinuity, ambiguity, introduced in the planning system by the interpretive account of the users and the system itself. The complexity of the potential spatially related roles of history for the users, and the relativist perspective on expert knowledge in this respect, combine to the recommendation of a shift from content to form in the planning system, which is therefore more than the planning disciplines. 1.3.4. About the general conclusions. About the general conclusions we do not want to say too much here, but we can point already at the importance assigned to the numerous types of uncertainty, discontinuity, ambiguity, introduced in the planning system by the interpretive account of the users and the system itself. The complexity of the potential spatially roles of history for the users, and the relativist perspective on expert knowledge in this respect, combine to the recommendation of a shift from content to form in the planning system, from planning and design ideals to better ways of organising the process, giving the knowledge of the users and the disciplines a fair change to enter the final plan.

For a living, most of the rural people in developing countries are primarily dependent on agriculture. If the farmers, who have investible surplus generated from agriculture, are interested in non-farm entrepreneurship then rural economy can find an industrial route of development. With this consideration, the study has posed the research question as to what determines non-farm entrepreneurship among farmers and thus attempted to identify the factors that may influence farmer's non-farm entrepreneurship. The theoretical part constituted a set of 13 hypotheses which in turn led to formulation of two questionnaires in order to collect data—one questionnaire was for interviewing the farmers who were engaged in non-farm manufacturing activities and the other questionnaire was for interviewing the farmers who were engaged in farming only. So far as the investigation part of the study is concerned Bardhaman district of the state of West Bengal in India was selected because during 1980s and 1990s the state has experiencedhighagricultural growth compared to the previous decades, which implies that farmers might have been able to gather surplus generated from agricultural development and therefore it was considered interesting to study non-farm entrepreneurship of farmers of West Bengal Five administrative blocks were randomly selected from the eastern part (agricultural part) of Bardhaman district, and then six panchayats have been randomly selected from each block, and finally 10 farm households were randomly selected from each panchayat, i.e. totally 300 samples were randomly selected for interviews. The LISREL (LInear Structural RELations) approach was applied to estimate the model which was constituted in the form of simultaneous equations system that included a set of 10 equations (indicating interdependencies between the endogenous and explanatory variables) with a consideration of the hypotheses of the theoretical model; and we applied the LISREL approach, by using its maximum likelihood estimator, since this approach can control for simultaneity bias in the model, and simultaneously deal with latent variables and the observable variable or, as we may say, can simultaneously estimate the measurement model and the structural model. The farmers who are married, engaged in producing three crops year, and risk takers have been found to have a relatively high probability to become non-farm entrepreneurs. The farmers who are relatively wealthy and have high levels of education have been found to be less likely in becoming non-farm entrepreneurs whereas age of farmer has indirect positive impact on non-farm entrepreneurship via marriage and indirect negative impact on non-farm entrepreneurship via risk attitude and wealth. The number of children of a farmer has been found to have an insignificant effect on non-farm entrepreneurship, but interestingly non-farm entrepreneurship has been found to have a positive impact on the number of children. Three exogenous variables—viz. age squared, farmer's primary involvement in agriculture either as a landowner or as a sharecropper, and farmer's faith in work-effort or fate - have been found to be highly insignificant and therefore have been removed from the structural model. Three explanatory variables - viz. political affiliation of farmer, financial family support, marriage relation, and innovativeness - have also been found to have insignificant impacts on non-farm entrepreneurship.

For a living, most of the rural people in developing countries are primarily dependent on agriculture. If the farmers, who have investible surplus generated from agriculture, are interested in non-farm entrepreneurship then rural economy can find an industrial route of development. With this consideration, the study has posed the research question as to what determines non-farm entrepreneurship among farmers and thus attempted to identify the factors that may influence farmer's non-farm entrepreneurship. The theoretical part constituted a set of 13 hypotheses which in turn led to formulation of two questionnaires in order to collect data—one questionnaire was for interviewing the farmers who were engaged in non-farm manufacturing activities and the other questionnaire was for interviewing the farmers who were engaged in farming only. So far as the investigation part of the study is concerned Bardhaman district of the state of West Bengal in India was selected because during 1980s and 1990s the state has experiencedhighagricultural growth compared to the previous decades, which implies that farmers might have been able to gather surplus generated from agricultural development and therefore it was considered interesting to study non-farm entrepreneurship of farmers of West Bengal Five administrative blocks were randomly selected from the eastern part (agricultural part) of Bardhaman district, and then six panchayats have been randomly selected from each block, and finally 10 farm households were randomly selected from each panchayat, i.e. totally 300 samples were randomly selected for interviews. The LISREL (LInear Structural RELations) approach was applied to estimate the model which was constituted in the form of simultaneous equations system that included a set of 10 equations (indicating interdependencies between the endogenous and explanatory variables) with a consideration of the hypotheses of the theoretical model; and we applied the LISREL approach, by using its maximum likelihood estimator, since this approach can control for simultaneity bias in the model, and simultaneously deal with latent variables and the observable variable or, as we may say, can simultaneously estimate the measurement model and the structural model. The farmers who are married, engaged in producing three crops year, and risk takers have been found to have a relatively high probability to become non-farm entrepreneurs. The farmers who are relatively wealthy and have high levels of education have been found to be less likely in becoming non-farm entrepreneurs whereas age of farmer has indirect positive impact on non-farm entrepreneurship via marriage and indirect negative impact on non-farm entrepreneurship via risk attitude and wealth. The number of children of a farmer has been found to have an insignificant effect on non-farm entrepreneurship, but interestingly non-farm entrepreneurship has been found to have a positive impact on the number of children. Three exogenous variables—viz. age squared, farmer's primary involvement in agriculture either as a landowner or as a sharecropper, and farmer's faith in work-effort or fate - have been found to be highly insignificant and therefore have been removed from the structural model. Three explanatory variables - viz. political affiliation of farmer, financial family support, marriage relation, and innovativeness - have also been found to have insignificant impacts on non-farm entrepreneurship.

Right now, we slightly shift the perspective and unfold a map of the book. It shows an outline of all the coming chapters, in order of appearance. Consider it as a preview, a summary in anticipation, but also as a methodological analysis of the book's structure, therefore a supplement to the paragraphs above. This map can be used every now an then while reading the book - use it as reader's guide. The introductory paragraphs on the diverse parts of the book will be repeated on the proper places. The book can be divided in three parts: theory of knowledge, case studies on cultures of users and planners, and identity theory.1.3.1. First part: theoretical frame in three partsThe first part consists in turn of three chapters: a historical perspective, a disciplinary perspective and a conceptual perspective. The three together can be labelled the general theoretical frame of the book, the frame from which the case studies start, and from which the identity theory is constructed. The first part sketches briefly the historical development towards post- modernism and post- modern views on theory, science,culture. Kant's Kritik der reinen vernunft is the starting point of this story, as his Kritik der praktischen vernunft will finish it. Key figures in the history of ideas towards post- modernism are discussed, and since post- modernism itself is not a disciplinary matter, people belonging to different disciplines are mentioned. The historical sketch aims at giving an insight in the development of ideas and simultaneously in the ideas themselves. Therefore, the historical perspective is a first step in the construction of the theoretical frame. Since the disciplines we situate ourselves in -spatial planning, urban planning, landscape architecture- are not yet satiated with post- modern thought, we considered it all the more useful to add such an historical perspective. The frame of the frame could be perceived absent without such an introduction. The second part of the theory is a disciplinary perspective on the types of post- modern thought we selected to use here, selected as useful answering our research question. .As said earlier, a combination of discourse studies, anthropology and semiotics is used. All three of them are useful in studying processes of interpretation and communication in cultures, against a background of social construction of worlds. All three of them have early and late modernist variants, and what we try to do in the disciplinary perspective, is give an idea of the presence of the developments towards post- modernism in the three intellectual traditions. This way, we locate our theoretical frame more precisely in these traditions, in the post- modem variants of them, at the moment the dominant ones. This way, the frame is defined more clearly, its construction is brought one step further.Last part of the theory is a conceptual perspective. We draw the consequences of the theoretical frame for the content of a number of concepts essential in the reasoning in the following chapters, essential in the understanding of the case studies too. Concepts like power, interpretation and more will receive a first interpretation in the light of the theory, and this interpretation is part of the theory construction itself. One could say that the historical and disciplinary contexts outlined in the first parts, are shown to define a number of key concepts used later on to look at spatial planning and design and create new theories there. In order to smoothen this process, this theoretical transition, we look ahead too, and make a first sketch of theoretical frames in planning and design that result from the use of these concepts defined in this post- modem way.1.3.2. Second part: three case studiesNext, second major part of the book, come the case studies, three in number : one on parks in Almere, a second one on small allotment gardens in Wageningen, the third on a new city district in Utrecht. All three of them are located in Holland. Nonetheless, we try to look for generally valid mechanisms in the signification of place, history and history in place in these Dutch case studies. In the case studies, a constant alternation between empiry and theory is strived for, by which we mean that we try to study the empirical situation at hand from our theoretical perspective, and develop the theory at the same time. In the text, this is translated as an alternation of more descriptive and more theoretical paragraphs. Theoretical paragraphs can be inductively or deductively produced, the first way of theory production deriving theory from the empirical situation, the second way deriving theory from theory and looking for confirmation of the new theory in the empirical situation.The Almere case is studying the cultures of the users, the pathways of signification of place, history and historical place in the users of a place. We investigated how people attribute meaning to their environment, to history and to history in their environments, and tried to list, inductively and deductively, the most important mechanisms in this respect. One can say that it is mostly semiotic in nature. The second case study, on the Wageningen gardens, is more anthropological. Individual significations of and history form a starting point, but afterwards the features of the gardeners as a group are at stake, as well as the significations of the place by other groups, and the interactions between gardeners and the rest. Also, the planning system -at a 10 cal level- enters the picture. The interactions between, gardeners and planners are studied, and the interactions between gardeners and other stakeholders within the planning arena designed by official planners. The third case study, on Leidsche Rijn Utrecht, is mainly focussed on the cultures within the planning system: professional cultures, organisational cultures, disciplinary cultures, their interactions, their constructions of place and history, the influence of their interactions on the final plan. This way, the three case studies span the range from individual user signification to groupsignification,and from user culture to planning culture.In the three case studies, a move from users to planners is made. The same relativist and interpretive perspective is used to look at the groups involved in the planning system and the groups using or potentially using the place one is talking about. Using this perspective, interpreting the users signification and the planners and designers signification as culturebased, and interpreting the roles of history in a materialised plan as the result of interactions between all these cultures, implies the introduction of a long list of socio- cultural factors as relevant for planning with history. And a long list of uncertainties and discontinuities. A new view on the limits of planning -and therefore on its characteristics and opportunities- can emerge from this new starting point.1.3.3. Third part: identity theory in threefoldThe third part of the book, the most extensive one, is in the first place theoretical, be it that a lot of empirical examples are given and a few case studies are incorporated. One can say that generally speaking, induction and deduction are combined, the emphasis being on deduction. Again, three parts can be distinguished: one concerning identity construction in all cultures, one focussed on planning cultures and the role of history, a third part being an extensive but rather illustrative case study on history and planning in Ukraine. In the pages on identity construction in all cultures, the cultures of users and of planners, we chose the identity concept to organise the relations between culture, labelled group identity, cultural image of place, named spatial identity, and cultural construction of history, here named image of history. AU three identities are seen as interrelated within a culture, mutually defining each other in a triangular relation. AU aspects of this triangular scheme of identity formation as social construction, are investigated separately. Also the conceptual embedding of the scheme and the embedding of the identity constructions of one group in the context of a society with other groups constructingidentities,are treated. The significations of place and history that were uncovered in the case studies, can gain importance if they function in processes of identity construction as represented in the schemes. More cultural factors affecting the potential use of history in planning are therefore uncovered in constructing these schemes. In this case the factors can be called potential sensibilities more significant in a planning perspective, since histories and places are shown to be potentially essential in the self- definition of groups. And a planning perspective can expected to take into account group preferences and sensibilities.The pages on planning culture and the role of history and historical knowledge can be summarized as an attempt to give an outline of a planning system :fromour interpretive perspective -a redefinition of a planning system in post- modern terms. In this drawing, the roles of knowledge and of historical knowledge are analysed. Of ten, the Dutch planning system serves as an example, but once more we are not primarily interested in the specificity of this case. In our analysis of the roles of historical knowledge in planning, several metaphors are used. Several planning metaphors (planning as a game, as...) are combined to unravel more mechanisms of the planning system, to unravel more potential roles of history in the system. In doing so, we aim at giving a more complete picture of the forces working on the constructions of place and history featuring in the cultures of planners and users. In the game metaphor e.g the characteristics of a game define a number of forces co- determining the outcome, the actual roles of histories in a plan. And the same goes for the other metaphors. What happens in the planning process to the images of history and place present in the cultures of planners and users can be better understood while using a combination of metaphors in a postmodern perspective. And such an understanding is necessary to give realistic recommendations later on concerning the potential roles of history to improve -urban- plans. One has to know the triangles and what happens to them in the planning process.In the final case, on spatial planning and history in Ukraine, focussing on Kiev, the capital, we do not intend to uncovermuch new mechanisms on significations of place and history and their roles in a planning system.We intend the case to be rather illustrative, showing the constructions of place and history by the users and the state, as well as the roles of histories and heritage in the actual planning practice. Interactions between cultures looking for an identity and a state looking for an identity, trying to impose it, are studied, as are the powers working on all these histories and identities in the planning system. An overview is given of the historical building blocks used by the identities, of the identities using the building blocks, and an outline is made of the attempts of the state to impose a new frame of identification for all the identities under its rule. This analysis is followed by a brief description of planning practice, where in the planning games not too much remains of the historical preferences of the user groups and even of the state itself.In the diverse chapters we labelled identity theory, the concept of identity was only used to organise the links between culture, place and history. Culture was defined in a semiotic way, as a group distinct by its signification of the world, as this typical signification itself, and cultures were identified among the users of a place and among the groups involved one way or another in the planning system. The design disciplines were included in the planning system, which is therefore more than the planning disciplines.1.3.4. About the general conclusionsAbout the general conclusions we do not want to say too much here,but we can point already at the importance assigned to the numerous types of uncertainty, discontinuity, ambiguity, introduced in the planning system by the interpretive account of the users and the system itself. The complexity of the potential spatially related roles of history for the users, and the relativist perspective on expert knowledge in this respect, combine to the recommendation of a shift from content to form in the planning system, which is therefore more than the planning disciplines. 1.3.4. About the general conclusions. About the general conclusions we do not want to say too much here, but we can point already at the importance assigned to the numerous types of uncertainty, discontinuity, ambiguity, introduced in the planning system by the interpretive account of the users and the system itself. The complexity of the potential spatially roles of history for the users, and the relativist perspective on expert knowledge in this respect, combine to the recommendation of a shift from content to form in the planning system, from planning and design ideals to better ways of organising the process, giving the knowledge of the users and the disciplines a fair change to enter the final plan.

A unique training book containing over 100 culture awareness exercises, dialogues, stories incidents and simulations that bring to life Geert Hofstede's five dimensions of culture. These dimensions are: power distance, collectivism versus individualism, femininity versus masculinity, uncertainly avoidance, and long-term versus short-term orientation. Exploring Culture also contains new material on Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions and the synthetic cultures. An excellent partner to Hofstede's popular Cultures & Organizations.

Our technological culture has an extremely dynamic character: old ways of reproducing ourselves, managing nature and keeping animals are continually replaced by new ones; norms and values with respect to our bodies, food production, health care and environmental protection are regularly being put up for discussion. This constantly confronts us with new moral problems and dilemmas. In discussion with other approaches this book argues that pragmatism, with its strong emphasis on the interaction between technology and values, gives us both procedural help and stresses the importance of living and cooperating together in tackling these problems and dilemmas. The issues in this book include the interaction of technology and ethics, the status of pragmatism, the concept of practice, and discourse ethics and deliberative democracy. It has an interactive design, with original contributions alternating with critical comments. The book is of interest for students, scholars and policymakers in the fields of bioethics, animal ethics, environmental ethics, pragmatist philosophy and science and technology studies.

Our technological culture has an extremely dynamic character: old ways of reproducing ourselves, managing nature and keeping animals are continually replaced by new ones; norms and values with respect to our bodies, food production, health care and environmental protection are regularly being put up for discussion. This constantly confronts us with new moral problems and dilemmas. In discussion with other approaches this book argues that pragmatism, with its strong emphasis on the interaction between technology and values, gives us both procedural help and stresses the importance of living and cooperating together in tackling these problems and dilemmas. The issues in this book include the interaction of technology and ethics, the status of pragmatism, the concept of practice, and discourse ethics and deliberative democracy. It has an interactive design, with original contributions alternating with critical comments. The book is of interest for students, scholars and policymakers in the fields of bioethics, animal ethics, environmental ethics, pragmatist philosophy and science and technology studies.

A unique training book containing over 100 culture awareness exercises, dialogues, stories incidents and simulations that bring to life Geert Hofstede's five dimensions of culture. These dimensions are: power distance, collectivism versus individualism, femininity versus masculinity, uncertainly avoidance, and long-term versus short-term orientation. Exploring Culture also contains new material on Geert Hofstede's cultural dimensions and the synthetic cultures. An excellent partner to Hofstede's popular Cultures & Organizations.

Some years ago the Dutch government announced in the Queen's Speech that the Netherlands are "doing well "and, furthermore, rosy prospects for the future were predicted. This statement immediately raises questions for the critically aware citizen about the criteria on which this announcement is based. Equally, it raises questions about the outcome of this evaluation, were it viewed from a European or global perspective.It is undeniably true that for most Dutch citizens the material prosperity has increased considerably. This is a positive development, which has consequences for many aspects of society: Dutch citizens reap the benefits in many ways. There are however other aspects of life that are important in reaching a judgement on whether things are 'going well' for the Netherlands, Europe or the world. I will mention four of these aspects:Developments as seen in relation to ecological balance and environmentThe relation between wealth and povertyThe position of human labourThe state of public order and safetyIf we include the above aspects in the assessment, the picture becomes less favourable. Ecological balances are still being disturbed and the environment is deteriorating. The use of finite resources of fossil fuel is still growing, while the consequences of this for the quality of the environment are becoming increasingly clear. Global warming is now accepted by the vast majority as a certainty and the effects are becoming evident. At the same time we see a diminishing biodiversity and disturbance of the hydrological cycle. A basic need such as clean and safe drinking water has become a very difficult commodity to obtain in many parts of the world.Differences in material prosperity that have slowly arisen over the centuries have not diminished, but even increased lately. One of the consequences of this for the richer nations of the world is that there is a steady flow of migrants from poor to rich countries, all hoping for a better life.Apart from some conjunctural upswings, unemployment in the western world is extensive and permanent. The social consequences of this, especially in (very) large urban conurbations, are immense. At the same time a clear tendency towards the degradation of human labour is present.Finally it must be concluded that public safety has decreased. This is true for both objectively measurable and subjectively perceived safety. An important factor in this is the major increase in aggression and violence.In widening our perspective and not just focusing on material well-being, the picture becomes less favourable than many want us to believe. Set against positive developments such as economic growth and technical knowledge, are other, negative developments. In order to steer these developments in another direction, as far as this is possible, it is necessary to adjust policy in a great many areas. This is achievable, only, if we are aware of negative developments, and if we want to change. However, if the will to change is present and policies change, it often becomes evident after some time that the (political) choices bear too few fruits. The result is not infrequently that certain problems increase rather than diminish. Looking back over the recent past, it even seems as if in many challenges there is an inability to come up with an adequate and timely response.Several explanations can be given for this. If responsible politicians and other policymakers suffer ideological tunnel vision, or if they are not fully aware of the full extent and nature of the different problems, then they will be unable to fully solve them. Another important explanation is that issues are often seen in isolation, i.e. without recognition of the relationships with other developments. Modern society is very complex, and so are the problems it poses. It is therefore understandable that policy makers, amongst others, have a tendency to concern themselves with relatively easy to grasp part-problems and are increasingly less able to have an overview of the whole picture. This is however no excuse for not trying. Economy, technology, education, environment, criminality and safety are, after all, largely interconnected. Any policy that takes insufficient account of this is bound to lead to disappointment and frustration.In this book I discuss such problems in relation to culture. 'Culture' has to be taken in the widest sense of the word. It embraces everything that people have gained and accomplished in their society and given environment, all products of hand and mind, material and immaterial, structures and institutions. It concerns widely held value judgements, beliefs and direction. The concept of culture and its meaning are discussed further in chapter II.The central question I want to pose is whether, over the centuries, there have been sweeping changes in Western culture, which have led to the above developments and problems. It is important to investigate these changes and their consequences, in order to learn lessons for the future. The last three centuries have indeed seen such changes. Where for centuries there used to be a tendency for a certain balance between existing components, both material and immaterial, things have changed dramatically during the last two centuries. Factors influencing these changes are varied and follow on from developments that started after the end of the European Middle Ages. These developments resulted in a gradually broadening rift between Western and other world cultures. A rift that was inextricably linked to splits within Western culture itself. In this culture, one component became increasingly important and began to be more independent. Economic growth became, especially after the industrial revolution, the central component of culture and profit maximalisation became the watchword. Man and his labour were increasingly viewed from this perspective and this narrowing of vision became generally accepted.Within the economy a profound theoretical and ideological struggle existed for a long time, which was decided (for the time being) in the nineteen seventies in favour of the adherents to the neoclassical "free market" thinking. The political consequences have been enormous, firstly in the United States, but then also in the rest of the world. A radicalisation of the economy took place distinguishing itself through a hardening of competition that became worldwide (globalisation). In recent times the limitations to the international flow of capital, which existed since 1944's Breton Woods international treaty, disappeared. Especially after the fall of communism in Russia and Europe a strong power shift took place, from the state (government) to multinationals.This development would not have been possible without the impressive growth of another culture component, science and technology. Not only people from Western cultures were curious about the hidden forces of Creation. Other people, such as Asians, were curious too, and Westerners were often not the first to make a discovery. Other cultures did not have, however, what the atom physicist von Weizacker called, the "childish" need to make everything that can be made. Within Western culture a close relationship grew between science and technology, extending also to economy and economic thinking, giving rise to the birth of a powerful scientific, technological and economic doctrine. This, in turn, brought Western society the first modern health technology, aviation, the atom bomb, television, computer, biotechnology, biological warfare etc. The core question: what to do with these technologies, is in many cases answered by asking how great the profitability will be of eventual industrial production.This way, the culture components science/technology and economy have grown out of proportion, have made themselves absolute and are dominating other components. This process still continues today, although opposition is growing. The dominant powers have, according to the sociologist/theologian/politician Banning, become "threatening powers".The severance of the tendency to an equilibrium between culture components has had profound effects for Western culture as a whole. In order to maintain the highest possible level of productivity of goods and services, a high level of consumption is needed. This can only be achieved through artificially increasing human need to a level that greatly surpasses the primary necessities of life. Advertising brings us the, almost religious, instruction: "Thou shalt desire!" Advertising and public relations now play an important role in the dissemination of opinions and the needs associated with them, that people accept as the truth. The inflated wish for 'more' has of course had its impact on other fields, such as the development of criminality. The imbalance between culture components has implications also for the relationship between individual and community. Many researchers, from different disciplines reach the same conclusion: there is an emergence of an extreme type of individualism that supersedes the sense of community. Following on from this appears a greater susceptibility to emotions that are not supported by reason, but yet are experienced uniformly by a great many people.Some norms and values have remained unchanged through the centuries, while others have eroded and disappeared. New norms and values have arisen, however, and still continue to do so. A new value is for instance the attention for the universal rights and duties of citizens. Examples of this are found in the manner in which war criminals are pursued nowadays and in the tendency to judge fellow citizens by their 'usefulness'. The first example leads to a greater respect for our fellow human beings, the latter to a decline in respect and an increased legitimisation of discrimination and violence. The vastly increased use of advertising and public relations has influenced the meaning of the concept 'truth'.The emphasis on the usefulness of people has its consequences for our view and determination of human labour. Under the influence of our economic thinking 'labour' has narrowed down to 'paid labour'. Human labour mainly counts as a production factor, which can be supported by machines - in their broadest sense- but can also increasingly be replaced by machines. Human labour is therefore increasingly a derivative of the quest for economic growth, the safeguarding of financial interests and the exploitation of technological findings.The negative developments outlined above have such a degree of importance, next to the positive developments in Western culture, especially if they are left to continue unchecked, that they will undermine the quality of human existence. Hence a plea that is especially aimed at the interest of generations to come, for a broadly supported policy that intentionally guides us to new directions within Western culture - before it is too late. Thoenes even spoke of "a desperate need for cultural renewal". Such a reforming culture policy, which is aimed at all components of culture in their mutual interactions, has to be directed at a maximisation of balance within our culture. This will be a lengthy process, which calls for an awakening of consciousness, and therefore has to be based on conviction and will. It is encouraging that a strengthening countermovement of many individuals and non-government organisations, active in many fields, is emerging, providing a structure to be built on. Essential, however, is the question: where do we want to go? To this question I would like to contribute in the second part of this book.It is inescapable that government, in every form, plays a central role in this process of change, a role that can only be fulfilled if government can rely upon support from a broad cross-section of society.Central to a cultural policy is the emphasis on, and application of values. Values form after all - and it is essential to acknowledge this - the backbone of any culture. Which values do we then choose? In my plea I start from values that are in part at odds with presently predominating values, such as respect for nature, control of self, moderation and frugality, durability, mindfulness of the exceptionally great risks of modern times, trustworthiness and integrity; a stable balance between individual and community, solidarity and tranquillity. All these values are based on the old concept of human dignity. These values however, if they are to be durable, will also have to be based on a firm religious or secular foundation.Religion, with its views, values and norms, has a profound influence on culture. Conversely, culture influences religion. The dominant position of science and technology gave rise to an unlimited belief in its potentiality. Many Christian thinkers therefore tend to retreat in their own theology, whilst various scientists have made appeals for a profound dialogue with the different religions.The primacy of the economy and economic thinking creates something, which Huizinga calls: "a habitus that is the opposite of Christianity." Indeed, the leading principle of economics "Thou shalt desire" turns the biblical vision of discouraging desire, on its head.I share van der Leeuw's opinion that a profound renewal of a culture is possible only if it includes all segments of this culture. As cultural components are interwoven, it is imperative to bear their mutual cohesion in mind. I will mention several policy areas of great importance.Policies on technology should not be based on an autonomous position of technology. According to van Melsen, a development that is aimed at harnessing nature should itself not be allowed to evade regulation. Technology should be ruled democratically and should be guided towards the service of humankind and world. Technology creates many possibilities, but we shall have to answer the question, if all possibilities must be applied, do we wanteverything technology can deliver? Technology will have to be viewed in relation to the quality of our environment, genetic modification and the influence of advertising or applied Information and Communication Technology on the thoughts and actions of people. We also need to answer the question: who bears the responsibility for important and risk-bearing decisions, such as those concerning genetics, nanotechnology and robotics? The danger of abuse or accidents in these fields is real. So is it possible to govern technology? The answer to this is "yes", especially because the most important developments arise at the interface between technology and economy, in which technology is made to be subservient to the quest for profit.Scientific research is difficult to guide, the dominant views in a culture are part-determining factors for research. The strong influence of technology and economy in the Western culture is obvious in choices and priorities concerning funding for scientific research and universities. Under a balanced scientific policy the arts, languages and social sciences are on a par with mainstream science, with the necessary consequence of an equality of financial support. This would also mean that, despite the existing far-reaching specialisation, it is important to try and aim research at the discovery of cohesion. It is therefore imperative that different disciplines will learn each other's language and start to communicate.Even more important is to end the grip of economy on the 'science industry'. A responsible science policy demands a democratic cultural policy that in turn benefits from a science policy as described above.Economic policy will have to be aimed at a control of economic activities, in order to protect and further the main interests of human being and society. Similarly, economic activities will have to fit within ecological prior conditions. The creation of demand for products and goods, aided by refined advertising techniques, should be prevented. Besides ecological considerations human dignity is at stake here too. There is a place only for objective, i.e. verifiable, product information. The economy needs to be aimed also at the evening out of differences in prosperity, the degradation of human labour and the eradication of unemployment.Education , i.e. all the activities aimed at preparing for, and being equipped for, life in society, is a cornerstone of every culture. An important question is what we may expect from people that are equipped for life in Europe in the 21st century. We should at least expect emancipation, the ability to deal with an abundance of largely fragmented information, the ability to gain insight in complex problems and to deal with information from the mass media in a critical way. Education should especially be aimed at whole-ness. The pursuit of holism and balance in culture can be effective only if it is mirrored in the pursuit of holism and balance in man. Education will therefore have to be aimed in equal measures at general knowledge, spiritual, economic, technical and social aspects.The primary living unit , i.e. the family can play an important role in the restoration of cultural balance. In this unit a form of cohabitation should exist that is aimed at durability, mutual support and care and emotional security. The family continually interacts with society. Family policy is an important part of cultural policy, because bringing up children is one of the most important functions of the family. Family policy therefore is two-pronged: the strengthening of the family from within and the underpinning of the place for this unit in society.The mass media too mirror the cultural imbalance, especially in this century in which new developments and problems will present themselves at a fast pace. In a democratic society a reliable source of information is invaluable. This poses a great responsibility for those people who control the mass media and who disseminate information. They must therefore meet high standards of professionalism and ethical awareness. Most citizens see reality through the spectacles of the journalist, commentator, photographer or cameraman. They are usually not able to see to what degree journalists, consciously or subconsciously, distort reality. Besides this there is a real danger that the contents of media offerings are influenced by the commercial powers that finance the media. Powers such as the state, the economy and technology need counter forces in the interest of cultural balance. This is certainly true for the media. This principle is one of the most important conditions for the preservation of democracy.A balanced cultural policy places high demands on government . Government has to be inspiring, visionary, strong and convincing. It cannot limit itself to fighting symptoms and postponing necessary measures until, during or after the crisis, they become feasible (government by crisis). Such conduct is possible only within the framework of a comprehensive cultural policy, in which different policy areas support each other. It is essential to restore the democratic form of government: the right of citizens to co-determine and influence policy in its fullest extent, without relinquishing power to 'industry' or 'the market'.Against ongoing trends in globalisation over the past decades, it is not realistic to restrict cultural policy to the national state.Now that Europe and the European Union are becoming increasingly significant, it has led to my dissertation resulting in an appeal for a European culture policy that has consideration for the economy and technology, but considers in equal measures other policy areas such as education and scientific research. Such policies would enable Europe to become visible to its citizens and this would prevent the European unification from creating a "Europe without the Europeans", as mentioned by Von der Gablentz.In the preceding contemplations and arguments the possibility emerges that the advocated changes will also influence the relationship with other cultures, as they did in the past. It is to be hoped that this will be a positive influence. This prospect strengthens the case for the removal of imbalances in Western culture.

Some years ago the Dutch government announced in the Queen's Speech that the Netherlands are "doing well "and, furthermore, rosy prospects for the future were predicted. This statement immediately raises questions for the critically aware citizen about the criteria on which this announcement is based. Equally, it raises questions about the outcome of this evaluation, were it viewed from a European or global perspective.It is undeniably true that for most Dutch citizens the material prosperity has increased considerably. This is a positive development, which has consequences for many aspects of society: Dutch citizens reap the benefits in many ways. There are however other aspects of life that are important in reaching a judgement on whether things are 'going well' for the Netherlands, Europe or the world. I will mention four of these aspects:Developments as seen in relation to ecological balance and environmentThe relation between wealth and povertyThe position of human labourThe state of public order and safetyIf we include the above aspects in the assessment, the picture becomes less favourable. Ecological balances are still being disturbed and the environment is deteriorating. The use of finite resources of fossil fuel is still growing, while the consequences of this for the quality of the environment are becoming increasingly clear. Global warming is now accepted by the vast majority as a certainty and the effects are becoming evident. At the same time we see a diminishing biodiversity and disturbance of the hydrological cycle. A basic need such as clean and safe drinking water has become a very difficult commodity to obtain in many parts of the world.Differences in material prosperity that have slowly arisen over the centuries have not diminished, but even increased lately. One of the consequences of this for the richer nations of the world is that there is a steady flow of migrants from poor to rich countries, all hoping for a better life.Apart from some conjunctural upswings, unemployment in the western world is extensive and permanent. The social consequences of this, especially in (very) large urban conurbations, are immense. At the same time a clear tendency towards the degradation of human labour is present.Finally it must be concluded that public safety has decreased. This is true for both objectively measurable and subjectively perceived safety. An important factor in this is the major increase in aggression and violence.In widening our perspective and not just focusing on material well-being, the picture becomes less favourable than many want us to believe. Set against positive developments such as economic growth and technical knowledge, are other, negative developments. In order to steer these developments in another direction, as far as this is possible, it is necessary to adjust policy in a great many areas. This is achievable, only, if we are aware of negative developments, and if we want to change. However, if the will to change is present and policies change, it often becomes evident after some time that the (political) choices bear too few fruits. The result is not infrequently that certain problems increase rather than diminish. Looking back over the recent past, it even seems as if in many challenges there is an inability to come up with an adequate and timely response.Several explanations can be given for this. If responsible politicians and other policymakers suffer ideological tunnel vision, or if they are not fully aware of the full extent and nature of the different problems, then they will be unable to fully solve them. Another important explanation is that issues are often seen in isolation, i.e. without recognition of the relationships with other developments. Modern society is very complex, and so are the problems it poses. It is therefore understandable that policy makers, amongst others, have a tendency to concern themselves with relatively easy to grasp part-problems and are increasingly less able to have an overview of the whole picture. This is however no excuse for not trying. Economy, technology, education, environment, criminality and safety are, after all, largely interconnected. Any policy that takes insufficient account of this is bound to lead to disappointment and frustration.In this book I discuss such problems in relation to culture. 'Culture' has to be taken in the widest sense of the word. It embraces everything that people have gained and accomplished in their society and given environment, all products of hand and mind, material and immaterial, structures and institutions. It concerns widely held value judgements, beliefs and direction. The concept of culture and its meaning are discussed further in chapter II.The central question I want to pose is whether, over the centuries, there have been sweeping changes in Western culture, which have led to the above developments and problems. It is important to investigate these changes and their consequences, in order to learn lessons for the future. The last three centuries have indeed seen such changes. Where for centuries there used to be a tendency for a certain balance between existing components, both material and immaterial, things have changed dramatically during the last two centuries. Factors influencing these changes are varied and follow on from developments that started after the end of the European Middle Ages. These developments resulted in a gradually broadening rift between Western and other world cultures. A rift that was inextricably linked to splits within Western culture itself. In this culture, one component became increasingly important and began to be more independent. Economic growth became, especially after the industrial revolution, the central component of culture and profit maximalisation became the watchword. Man and his labour were increasingly viewed from this perspective and this narrowing of vision became generally accepted.Within the economy a profound theoretical and ideological struggle existed for a long time, which was decided (for the time being) in the nineteen seventies in favour of the adherents to the neoclassical "free market" thinking. The political consequences have been enormous, firstly in the United States, but then also in the rest of the world. A radicalisation of the economy took place distinguishing itself through a hardening of competition that became worldwide (globalisation). In recent times the limitations to the international flow of capital, which existed since 1944's Breton Woods international treaty, disappeared. Especially after the fall of communism in Russia and Europe a strong power shift took place, from the state (government) to multinationals.This development would not have been possible without the impressive growth of another culture component, science and technology. Not only people from Western cultures were curious about the hidden forces of Creation. Other people, such as Asians, were curious too, and Westerners were often not the first to make a discovery. Other cultures did not have, however, what the atom physicist von Weizacker called, the "childish" need to make everything that can be made. Within Western culture a close relationship grew between science and technology, extending also to economy and economic thinking, giving rise to the birth of a powerful scientific, technological and economic doctrine. This, in turn, brought Western society the first modern health technology, aviation, the atom bomb, television, computer, biotechnology, biological warfare etc. The core question: what to do with these technologies, is in many cases answered by asking how great the profitability will be of eventual industrial production.This way, the culture components science/technology and economy have grown out of proportion, have made themselves absolute and are dominating other components. This process still continues today, although opposition is growing. The dominant powers have, according to the sociologist/theologian/politician Banning, become "threatening powers".The severance of the tendency to an equilibrium between culture components has had profound effects for Western culture as a whole. In order to maintain the highest possible level of productivity of goods and services, a high level of consumption is needed. This can only be achieved through artificially increasing human need to a level that greatly surpasses the primary necessities of life. Advertising brings us the, almost religious, instruction: "Thou shalt desire!" Advertising and public relations now play an important role in the dissemination of opinions and the needs associated with them, that people accept as the truth. The inflated wish for 'more' has of course had its impact on other fields, such as the development of criminality. The imbalance between culture components has implications also for the relationship between individual and community. Many researchers, from different disciplines reach the same conclusion: there is an emergence of an extreme type of individualism that supersedes the sense of community. Following on from this appears a greater susceptibility to emotions that are not supported by reason, but yet are experienced uniformly by a great many people.Some norms and values have remained unchanged through the centuries, while others have eroded and disappeared. New norms and values have arisen, however, and still continue to do so. A new value is for instance the attention for the universal rights and duties of citizens. Examples of this are found in the manner in which war criminals are pursued nowadays and in the tendency to judge fellow citizens by their 'usefulness'. The first example leads to a greater respect for our fellow human beings, the latter to a decline in respect and an increased legitimisation of discrimination and violence. The vastly increased use of advertising and public relations has influenced the meaning of the concept 'truth'.The emphasis on the usefulness of people has its consequences for our view and determination of human labour. Under the influence of our economic thinking 'labour' has narrowed down to 'paid labour'. Human labour mainly counts as a production factor, which can be supported by machines - in their broadest sense- but can also increasingly be replaced by machines. Human labour is therefore increasingly a derivative of the quest for economic growth, the safeguarding of financial interests and the exploitation of technological findings.The negative developments outlined above have such a degree of importance, next to the positive developments in Western culture, especially if they are left to continue unchecked, that they will undermine the quality of human existence. Hence a plea that is especially aimed at the interest of generations to come, for a broadly supported policy that intentionally guides us to new directions within Western culture - before it is too late. Thoenes even spoke of "a desperate need for cultural renewal". Such a reforming culture policy, which is aimed at all components of culture in their mutual interactions, has to be directed at a maximisation of balance within our culture. This will be a lengthy process, which calls for an awakening of consciousness, and therefore has to be based on conviction and will. It is encouraging that a strengthening countermovement of many individuals and non-government organisations, active in many fields, is emerging, providing a structure to be built on. Essential, however, is the question: where do we want to go? To this question I would like to contribute in the second part of this book.It is inescapable that government, in every form, plays a central role in this process of change, a role that can only be fulfilled if government can rely upon support from a broad cross-section of society.Central to a cultural policy is the emphasis on, and application of values. Values form after all - and it is essential to acknowledge this - the backbone of any culture. Which values do we then choose? In my plea I start from values that are in part at odds with presently predominating values, such as respect for nature, control of self, moderation and frugality, durability, mindfulness of the exceptionally great risks of modern times, trustworthiness and integrity; a stable balance between individual and community, solidarity and tranquillity. All these values are based on the old concept of human dignity. These values however, if they are to be durable, will also have to be based on a firm religious or secular foundation.Religion, with its views, values and norms, has a profound influence on culture. Conversely, culture influences religion. The dominant position of science and technology gave rise to an unlimited belief in its potentiality. Many Christian thinkers therefore tend to retreat in their own theology, whilst various scientists have made appeals for a profound dialogue with the different religions.The primacy of the economy and economic thinking creates something, which Huizinga calls: "a habitus that is the opposite of Christianity." Indeed, the leading principle of economics "Thou shalt desire" turns the biblical vision of discouraging desire, on its head.I share van der Leeuw's opinion that a profound renewal of a culture is possible only if it includes all segments of this culture. As cultural components are interwoven, it is imperative to bear their mutual cohesion in mind. I will mention several policy areas of great importance.Policies on technology should not be based on an autonomous position of technology. According to van Melsen, a development that is aimed at harnessing nature should itself not be allowed to evade regulation. Technology should be ruled democratically and should be guided towards the service of humankind and world. Technology creates many possibilities, but we shall have to answer the question, if all possibilities must be applied, do we wanteverything technology can deliver? Technology will have to be viewed in relation to the quality of our environment, genetic modification and the influence of advertising or applied Information and Communication Technology on the thoughts and actions of people. We also need to answer the question: who bears the responsibility for important and risk-bearing decisions, such as those concerning genetics, nanotechnology and robotics? The danger of abuse or accidents in these fields is real. So is it possible to govern technology? The answer to this is "yes", especially because the most important developments arise at the interface between technology and economy, in which technology is made to be subservient to the quest for profit.Scientific research is difficult to guide, the dominant views in a culture are part-determining factors for research. The strong influence of technology and economy in the Western culture is obvious in choices and priorities concerning funding for scientific research and universities. Under a balanced scientific policy the arts, languages and social sciences are on a par with mainstream science, with the necessary consequence of an equality of financial support. This would also mean that, despite the existing far-reaching specialisation, it is important to try and aim research at the discovery of cohesion. It is therefore imperative that different disciplines will learn each other's language and start to communicate.Even more important is to end the grip of economy on the 'science industry'. A responsible science policy demands a democratic cultural policy that in turn benefits from a science policy as described above.Economic policy will have to be aimed at a control of economic activities, in order to protect and further the main interests of human being and society. Similarly, economic activities will have to fit within ecological prior conditions. The creation of demand for products and goods, aided by refined advertising techniques, should be prevented. Besides ecological considerations human dignity is at stake here too. There is a place only for objective, i.e. verifiable, product information. The economy needs to be aimed also at the evening out of differences in prosperity, the degradation of human labour and the eradication of unemployment.Education , i.e. all the activities aimed at preparing for, and being equipped for, life in society, is a cornerstone of every culture. An important question is what we may expect from people that are equipped for life in Europe in the 21st century. We should at least expect emancipation, the ability to deal with an abundance of largely fragmented information, the ability to gain insight in complex problems and to deal with information from the mass media in a critical way. Education should especially be aimed at whole-ness. The pursuit of holism and balance in culture can be effective only if it is mirrored in the pursuit of holism and balance in man. Education will therefore have to be aimed in equal measures at general knowledge, spiritual, economic, technical and social aspects.The primary living unit , i.e. the family can play an important role in the restoration of cultural balance. In this unit a form of cohabitation should exist that is aimed at durability, mutual support and care and emotional security. The family continually interacts with society. Family policy is an important part of cultural policy, because bringing up children is one of the most important functions of the family. Family policy therefore is two-pronged: the strengthening of the family from within and the underpinning of the place for this unit in society.The mass media too mirror the cultural imbalance, especially in this century in which new developments and problems will present themselves at a fast pace. In a democratic society a reliable source of information is invaluable. This poses a great responsibility for those people who control the mass media and who disseminate information. They must therefore meet high standards of professionalism and ethical awareness. Most citizens see reality through the spectacles of the journalist, commentator, photographer or cameraman. They are usually not able to see to what degree journalists, consciously or subconsciously, distort reality. Besides this there is a real danger that the contents of media offerings are influenced by the commercial powers that finance the media. Powers such as the state, the economy and technology need counter forces in the interest of cultural balance. This is certainly true for the media. This principle is one of the most important conditions for the preservation of democracy.A balanced cultural policy places high demands on government . Government has to be inspiring, visionary, strong and convincing. It cannot limit itself to fighting symptoms and postponing necessary measures until, during or after the crisis, they become feasible (government by crisis). Such conduct is possible only within the framework of a comprehensive cultural policy, in which different policy areas support each other. It is essential to restore the democratic form of government: the right of citizens to co-determine and influence policy in its fullest extent, without relinquishing power to 'industry' or 'the market'.Against ongoing trends in globalisation over the past decades, it is not realistic to restrict cultural policy to the national state.Now that Europe and the European Union are becoming increasingly significant, it has led to my dissertation resulting in an appeal for a European culture policy that has consideration for the economy and technology, but considers in equal measures other policy areas such as education and scientific research. Such policies would enable Europe to become visible to its citizens and this would prevent the European unification from creating a "Europe without the Europeans", as mentioned by Von der Gablentz.In the preceding contemplations and arguments the possibility emerges that the advocated changes will also influence the relationship with other cultures, as they did in the past. It is to be hoped that this will be a positive influence. This prospect strengthens the case for the removal of imbalances in Western culture.

Visie op de (maakbare) natuur : cognitieve, ethische en esthetische aspecten

Als gevolg van bevolkingsveroudering, optredend in zowel westerse als niet~westerse samenlevingen, treden er structurele veranderingen op in de aanratsverhoudingen tussen de verschillende leeftijdsgroepen. Dit is van invloed op het welzijn en de positie van ouderen. Het mondiale karakter van dit verschijnsel nodigt uit tot het hanteren van een vergelijkende benadering bij de bestudering ervan. Hiermee wordt geenDurkheimiaanse sociale morfologie van hele maatschappijen bedoeld, maar een vergelijking op het niveau van relevante instituties. In dit geval: huishouden, familie en verwantschap. De gevarieerde sociale en culturele context waarbinnen deze instituties functioneren, vertoont enkele voor vergrijzende samenlevingen specifieke kenmerken, zoals het ontstaan van een 'derde leeftijd(-sfase)'. De vergelijkende benadering zoafs hier voorgesleid vereist her terzijde schuiven van een aantal binaire opposities, zoals traditioneel tegenover modem, wesiers regenover niet-westers, publiek tegenover privé, en antropologie tegenover sociologie, omdat deze zijn voortgekomen uit een inmiddels verouderd moderniseringsparadigma. Zij vertroebelen in plaats van verhelderen onze blik. In de uitwerking van deze vergelijkende benadering voor het thema van ouderen en welzijn wordt met name aandacht besteedt aan de rol van verwantse/tapsrelaties en aan processen en typen van zorgverlening.