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The use of ochre has been documented in many Middle Stone Age sites of Southern Africa. However, the literature on the exploitation of ochre within the archaeological contexts of Later Stone Age (LSA) rock art sites is scarce. Despite the discovery of several painted shelters within the Erongo Mountains (Namibia), no archaeological study of ochre assemblages has been conducted in the region. Here, we present the archaeological ochre assemblage recovered from a LSA sequence at the rock art shelter of Leopard Cave (Erongo, Namibia), spanning ca. 5,700 to 2,100 cal. BP. The use-wear traces present on some ochre fragments and the stone tools bearing red residues are indicative of different stages of ochre processing at the site. The presence of other artifacts, such as ostrich eggshell and bone beads with red residues, and the existence of rock paintings in the cave are pointers to the importance of ochre for understanding the sociocultural behaviors of the LSA populations in central Namibia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ochre is found at numerous Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and plays a key role in early modern human archaeology. Here we analyse the largest known East African MSA ochre assemblage, comprising 40 kg of ochre, found at Porc-Epic Cave, Ethiopia, spanning a period of at least 4,500 years. Visual characterisation of ochre types, microscopic identification of traces of modification, morphological and morphometric analysis of ochre pieces and modified areas, experimental reproduction of grinding processes, surface texture analysis of archaeological and experimentally ground ochre facets, laser granulometry of ochre powder produced experimentally on different grindstones and by Hamar and Ovahimba women from Ethiopia and Namibia respectively, were, for the first time, combined to explore diachronic shifts in ochre processing technology. Our results identify patterns of continuity in ochre acquisition, treatment and use reflecting both persistent use of the same geological resources and similar uses of iron-rich rocks by late MSA Porc-Epic inhabitants. Considering the large amount of ochre processed at the site, this continuity can be interpreted as the expression of a cohesive cultural adaptation, largely shared by all community members and consistently transmitted through time. A gradual shift in preferred processing techniques and motions is interpreted as reflecting cultural drift within this practice. Evidence for the grinding of ochre to produce small quantities of powder throughout the sequence is consistent with a use in symbolic activities for at least part of the ochre assemblage from Porc-Epic Cave. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We describe colour, hardness, grain size, geological type and surface modifications of ochre pieces excavated, first by Malan and later by Harper, from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) of Rose Cottage Cave, 96, 000 to 30, 000 years ago. Soft, bright-red shales are abundant, and most ochre has clayey or silty grain sizes. The post-Howiesons Poort layers contain the most ochre pieces, but the Howiesons Poort layers have the highest frequency of ochre per sediment volume. The pre-Howiesons Poort layers have the highest utilization rate. Use-traces include rubbing, grinding, combined grinding and rubbing, and rare instances of scoring. The processing techniques are proxies for ochre use. Rubbing transfers red ochre powder directly onto soft surfaces, such as human skin, or animal hide. This is appropriate when skin colouring and marking or skin protection (for example from sun, insects or bacteria) is the purpose. Grinding produces ochre powder that can be used for a variety of tasks. It can be mixed with water or other products to create paint, cosmetics or adhesives. Multiple uses of ochre powder and ochre pieces are therefore implied at Rose Cottage and changes through time are apparent. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ochre is a common feature at Middle Stone Age (MSA) sites and has often been interpreted as a proxy for the origin of modern behaviour. However, few ochre processing tools, ochre containers, and ochre-stained artefacts from MSA contexts have been studied in detail within a theoretical framework aimed at inferring the technical steps involved in the acquisition, production and use of these artefacts. Here we analyse 21 ochre processing tools, i.e. upper and lower grindstones, and two ochre-stained artefacts from the MSA layers of Porc-Epic Cave, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia, dated to ca. 40 cal kyr BP. These tools, and a large proportion of the 4213 ochre fragments found at the site, were concentrated in an area devoted to ochre processing. Lower grindstones are made of a variety of raw materials, some of which are not locally available. Traces of use indicate that different techniques were employed to process ochre. Optical microscopy, XRD, μ-Raman spectroscopy, and SEM-EDS analyses of residues preserved on worn areas of artefacts show that different types of ferruginous rocks were processed in order to produce ochre powder of different coarseness and shades. A round stone bearing no traces of having been used to process ochre is half covered with residues as if it had been dipped in a liquid ochered medium to paint the object or to use it as a stamp to apply pigment to a soft material. We argue that the ochre reduction sequences identified at Porc-Epic Cave reflect a high degree of behavioural complexity, and represent ochre use, which was probably devoted to a variety of functions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Usually referred to in archaeological contexts simply as 'ochre', ferruginous rocks were commonly used during the Middle Stone Age (MSA) in South Africa. While ochre use by early modern humans has often been interpreted as reflecting complex behaviours, related procurement strategies and selection criteria remain poorly documented. Eight ochre sources from the surroundings of Diepkloof rock shelter in South Africa and 28 ochre pieces from the site's MSA levels were studied by XRD, ICP-OES and ICP-MS. Mineralogical and geochemical data demonstrate that ochre was both locally procured and transported to the site from more distant sources. Here, we investigate the reasons underlying the choice of particular local and non-local ochre sources exploited at Diepkloof, emphasizing differences in their physico-chemical properties. Regardless of the motivations behind ochre selection, our data shed new light on the behavioural complexity of MSA societies and suggest that ochre procurement strategies may be independent of subsistence concerns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Africa, ochre is ubiquitous in archaeological sites after 100 ka and likely served a symbolic role in the lives of prehistoric people. Archaeological excavation of the c. 100–72 ka Middle Stone Age (MSA) levels at Blombos Cave (BBC) located in the southern Cape, South Africa, have yielded significant amounts of ochre as artefacts or residues. Although recent archaeological evidence from BBC and elsewhere has provided remarkable insights into the ways that ochre was used, for example its use as a pigmented ‘paint’, the significance of ochre can be further understood by studying its procurement pattern. To this end, the geochemical characterisation of recovered ochre can tell us about the temporal and spatial variation present at a site. The analysis of BBC ochre was accomplished using FTIR, ED XRF, ICP OES and XRD with the aim of determining the mineral and elemental composition variability of ochre across layers and thereby gauging whether there were preferred or different ochre procurement patterns or sources over time. For example, it was found that ochre residues from the c. 100 ka CP layer had kaolinite and quartz as the principal minerals, while ochre residues from the c. 97 ka CJ layer consisted mainly of calcite and quartz. Thus, mineral composition can indicate procurement of different sources of ochre during the various stages of the cave occupation. Elemental analysis of ochre residues from the c. 77–72 ka Still Bay, CJ and CP layers also revealed differences in minor and trace elements. These findings seem to indicate some differences in the ochre from these levels and can also be taken as an indication of different ochre sourcing. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The production of compound adhesives using disparate ingredients is seen as some of the best evidence of advanced cognition outside of the use of symbolism. Previous field and laboratory testing of adhesives has shown the complexities involved in creating an effective Middle Stone Age glue using Acacia gum. However, it is currently unclear how efficient different adhesive recipes are, how much specific ingredients influence their performance, and how difficult it may have been for those ingredients to be combined to maximum effect. We conducted a series of laboratory-based lap shear and impact tests, following modern adhesion testing standards, to determine the efficacy of compound adhesives, with particular regard to the ingredient ratios. We tested rosin (colophony) and gum adhesives, containing additives of beeswax and ochre in varying ratios. During both lap shear and impact tests compound rosin adhesives performed better than single component rosin adhesives, and pure acacia gum was the strongest. The large difference in performance between each base adhesive and the significant changes in performance that occur due to relatively small changes in ingredient ratios lend further support to the notion that high levels of skill and knowledge were required to consistently produce the most effective adhesives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Ochre is found at many Middle Stone Age sites and its use is often associated with enhanced mental abilities and symbolism, but the links between the visible uses of ochre and cognition have not been clearly defined. By establishing the technology and processes involved in using ochre, one can determine the skill, knowledge and cognitive abilities required to execute those activities. This is done here by constructing thought-and-action and inferential cognitive sequences for the various ochre activities performed at Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa. Powder production alone is not an indicator of complex cognitive processes, although some planning, foresight and knowledge of materials is required. Some ochre powder was used in the creation of hafting adhesives which is a cognitively demanding process requiring attention-switching, response inhibition, analogical reasoning and abstract thought. The direct transfer of ochre powder from an ochre piece to a soft material through grinding and rubbing requires some complex thought and action procedures — analogical reasoning and the ability to multi-task and switch attention between activities. Scoring a piece of ochre with a sharp tool does not necessitate enhanced executive functioning. However, some engravings demonstrate intentionality and an awareness of space and symmetry that may imply abstract thought. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Although no paintings are associated with archaeological contexts before the end of the Middle Stone Age, hundreds of ochre pieces were discovered on numerous southern African sites suggesting a lasting tradition of ochre use. The variability and the significance of ochre exploitation remain however poorly documented. The MSA site of Diepkloof Rock Shelter (Western Cape Province, South Africa) offers an ideal opportunity to discuss questions of ochre procurement, processing, and use over a long sequence. This study develops an original methodology based on observations on one hand, and SEM-EDS, XRD and Raman spectrometry analyses on the other hand. By comparing raw materials with our geological database, we show that some iron-rich raw materials were collected more than 20 km from the site. Such long-distance procurement combined with other elements of the overall context suggests a planning of procurement. One main chaîne opératoire based on grinding was identified at Diepkloof. In comparison with other South African sites, we observed no evidence for use as loading agent in adhesives. We conclude that ochre use may follow regional cultural patterns. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The properties of ochre from the Middle Stone Age (MSA) layers of Sibudu, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, are described here. The assemblage comprises 5449 pieces (>8 mm), including 682 pieces with markings from use. Shale is the most common geological form. Ochre of medium hardness is common and the grain sizes are generally silty or clayey. Some change in ochre types occurs through time. The pre- Still Bay and Howiesons Poort layers have the highest percentage of utilised pieces. Clayey grain sizes are favoured during the Still Bay and Howiesons Poort, whereas silty grain sizes are preferred in the younger MSA occupations. Bright-red ochre was preferentially selected for use throughout the sequence, with the exception of the final MSA where a wider range of colours was utilised. High frequencies of red amongst the utilised pieces, coupled with high frequencies of yellow or orange pieces with no evidence of use, suggest that colour choices were deliberate and not a product of post-depositional heating. Chemical analysis on a sample of utilised pieces indicates that they all contain iron, silicon, aluminium and calcium. Many pieces contain hematite and some maghemite. There is evidence of preferential selection of specific types of ochre for use in the Sibudu assemblage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The increase in the presence of ‘ochre’ in African Middle Stone Age contexts has been employed, together with changes in human biology and behaviour, to support the hypothesis that ‘modern’ cognitive abilities arose in Africa. The consistent exploitation of ochre is interpreted as evidence for colour symbolism, a proxy for the origin of language and a defining aspect of ‘modern’ human behaviour. That humans attached considerable symbolic value to red ochres in particular is illustrated by ethnographic examples. Research has shown that wear patterns indicative of abrasive processing methods prevail, but many archaeological specimens also exhibit wear traces not derived from grinding or scraping alone. Building on former research, I present here the results of an experimental study devised to infer the methods employed to extract powder from ochre during the African Middle Stone Age. The prospect of ascertaining at least some of the likely uses to which ochre may have been put, is also explored. I conclude that functional data derived from actualistic experiments can be used to enhance our understanding of some aspects of prehistoric behaviour. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: It is generally accepted that abstract and iconographic representations are reflections of symbolic material culture. Here we describe a fragmented ocherous pebble bearing a sequence of sub-parallel linear incisions. These were produced by a lithic point and may represent one of the oldest instances of a deliberate engraving. The object was recovered from Middle Stone Age II levels of Klasies River Cave 1, South Africa, and is dated to between 100,000 and 85,000 years ago. Microscopic analysis reveals that the surface of the object was ground until smooth before being engraved with a sequence of sub-parallel lines made by single and multiple strokes. X-ray fluorescence and colorimetric analysis of the object and a sample of twelve additional ochre pieces from the same level reveals that the brown colour and Manganese-rich composition renders the engraved piece distinct. This suggests that a particular type of raw material may have been selected for engraving purposes. Although the purpose of marking this object remains uncertain, its detailed analysis adds relevant information to previously published occurrences of Middle Stone Age engraved objects and contributes to clarify their distribution through time and space. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The white ash of Sibudu hearths sometimes became cemented and, when this was the case, some of these crusts were used as work surfaces or receptacles, particularly in occupations dating about 58,000 years ago. Substantial deposits of red and yellow ochre powder have been found on these crusts. This suggests that the ochre was not associated with hearths for heat treatment because yellow ochre readily transforms to red even at low temperatures. XRF readings suggest that the ochre used at the site derives from different geological sources. Micromorphological studies imply that phosphatization caused the cementation of the ashes in some hearths, while gypsum growth hardened one of the hearths described here. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Powerful categories of evidence for symbolically mediated behaviour, variously described as ‘modern’ or ‘cognitively modern’ human behaviour, are geometric or iconographic representations. After 40,000 years ago such evidence is well documented in much of the Old World and is widely considered as typifying ‘modern human culture,’ but earlier evidence is rare. In Africa, this includes two deliberately engraved ochre pieces from c. 75,000 year old levels at Blombos Cave, Western Cape, South Africa and the greater than 55,000 year old incised ostrich egg shell from the Diepkloof shelter, located in the same province. Here we report on thirteen additional pieces of incised ochre recovered from c. 75,000–100,000 year old levels at Blombos Cave. These finds, taken together with other engraved objects reported from other southern African sites, suggest that symbolic intent and tradition were present in this region at an earlier date than previously thought. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Microscopy was performed on tools obtained from the Middle Stone Age deposits of Sibudu Cave because previous observations suggested that there might be a possible functional role for ochre at the site. Analyses of the distribution patterns of ochre residues conducted on post-Howiesons Poort points and Howiesons Poort segments from Sibudu Cave show that ochre was an integral part of the hafting technologies for the duration of these techno-complexes. Close associations between ochre and resin on these tools strengthen the hypothesis that ground ochre was probably mixed into the adhesives that were used to glue the tools to hafts. The evidence presented here expands our understanding of the versatility and value of pigmentatious material in prehistory; it is not intended to be an alternative or replacement hypothesis for its possible symbolic role. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Study of the marked objects made of bone, ochre, and ostrich eggshell reported for the Middle Stone Age in Africa indicates that they are nonrepresentational, relatively small, and rare and that they may have been made in a single sitting with a design intended from the outset. Explanations for their appearance may involve a change in mental abilities and, ultimately, a change in early modern human society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the Eurasian Upper Paleolithic after about 35,000 years ago, abstract or depictional images provide evidence for cognitive abilities considered integral to modern human behavior. Here we report on two abstract representations engraved on pieces of red ochre recovered from the Middle Stone Age layers at Blombos Cave in South Africa. A mean date of 77,000 years was obtained for the layers containing the engraved ochres by thermoluminescence dating of burnt lithics, and the stratigraphic integrity was confirmed by an optically stimulated luminescence age of 70,000 years on an overlying dune. These engravings support the emergence of modern human behavior in Africa at least 35,000 years before the start of the Upper Paleolithic. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Focuses on the issues related to Middle Stone Age engravings in South Africa. Sequence of engraving; Symbolic content of engraved ochre; Facilitation of arts and science.