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Background: Accurate information about children's intake is crucial for national nutrition policy and for research and clinical activities. To analyze accuracy for reporting energy and nutrients, most validation studies utilize the "conventional approach," which was not designed to capture errors of reported foods and amounts. The "reporting-error-sensitive approach" captures errors of reported foods and amounts., Objective: To extend results to energy and macronutrients for a validation study concerning retention interval (elapsed time between to-be-reported meals and the interview) and accuracy for reporting school-meal intake, the conventional and reporting-error-sensitive approaches were compared. DESIGN AND PARTICIPANTS/SETTING: Fourth-grade children (n=374) were observed eating two school meals, and interviewed to obtain a 24-hour recall using one of six interview conditions from crossing two target periods (prior 24 hours and previous day) with three interview times (morning, afternoon, and evening). Data were collected in one district during three school years (2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007)., Main Outcome Measures: Report rates (reported/observed), correspondence rates (correctly reported/observed), and inflation ratios (intruded/observed) were calculated for energy and macronutrients., Statistical Analyses Performed: For each outcome measure, mixed-model analysis of variance was conducted with target period, interview time, their interaction, and sex in the model; results were adjusted for school year and interviewer., Results: With the conventional approach, report rates for energy and macronutrients did not differ by target period, interview time, their interaction, or sex. With the reporting-error-sensitive approach, correspondence rates for energy and macronutrients differed by target period (four P values <0.0001) and the target period by interview-time interaction (four P values <0.0001); inflation ratios for energy and macronutrients differed by target period (four P values <0.0001), and inflation ratios for energy and carbohydrate differed by the target period by interview-time interaction (both P values <0.005)., Conclusions: Shortening the retention interval of dietary recalls increases accuracy for reporting energy and macronutrients. For validation studies, it is best to obtain reference information from a method that provides details about foods and amounts consumed and to use an analytic approach that captures errors of reported foods and amounts., (2010 American Dietetic Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Data from a study concerning retention interval and school-meal observation on children's dietary recalls were used to investigate relationships of social desirability score (SDS) and body mass index percentile (BMI%) to recall accuracy for energy for observed (n = 327) children, and to reported energy for observed and unobserved (n = 152) children. Report rates (reported/observed) correlated negatively with SDS and BMI%. Correspondence rates (correctly reported/observed) correlated negatively with SDS. Inflation ratios (overreported/observed) correlated negatively with BMI%. The relationship between reported energy and each of SDS and BMI% did not depend on observation status. Studies utilizing children's dietary recalls should assess SDS and BMI%.

Background/objectives: Validation-study data were analyzed to investigate the effect of retention interval (time between the to-be-reported meal and interview) on accuracy of children's school-breakfast reports and school-lunch reports in 24-h recalls, and to compare accuracy of children's school-breakfast reports for two breakfast locations (classroom; cafeteria)., Subjects/methods: Each of 374 fourth-grade children was interviewed to obtain a 24-h recall using one of six conditions from crossing two target periods (prior 24 h; previous day) with three interview times (morning; afternoon; evening). Each condition had 62 or 64 children (half boys). A recall's target period included one school breakfast and one school lunch, for which the child had been observed. Food-item variables (observed number; reported number; omission rate; intrusion rate) and energy variables (observed; reported; report rate; correspondence rate; inflation ratio) were calculated for each child for school breakfast and school lunch separately., Results: Accuracy for school-breakfast reports and school-lunch reports was inversely related to retention interval. Specifically, as indicated by smaller omission rates, smaller intrusion rates, larger correspondence rates and smaller inflation ratios, accuracy for school-breakfast reports was best for prior-24-h recalls in the morning, and accuracy for school-lunch reports was best for prior-24-h recalls in the afternoon. For neither school meal was a significant sex effect found for any variable. For school-breakfast reports, there was no significant school-breakfast location effect for any variable., Conclusions: By shortening the retention interval, accuracy can be improved for school-breakfast reports and school-lunch reports in children's 24-h recalls.

Objective: To use data from a published validation study concerning retention interval and school food-service production records to examine intrusions (uneaten items reported eaten) in the school-meal parts of 24 h recalls., Design: For that study, children were observed eating two school meals (breakfast, lunch) and interviewed under one of six conditions from two target periods (previous day (PDTP), prior 24 h (24TP)) crossed with three interview times (morning, afternoon (AIT), evening). For the present article, a catalogue was constructed of foods available for that study's school meals. The study's intrusions were classified as stretches (on children's meal trays but uneaten), internal confabulations (in children's school food-service environments for that meal but not on children's trays) or external confabulations (not in children's school food-service environments for that meal). Occurrence, types and amounts of intrusions were investigated., Setting/subjects: Six schools; sixty fourth-grade children (ten per condition)., Results: For breakfast, for the 24TP v. PDTP, reported items were less likely to be intrusions, internal confabulations and external confabulations; and intrusions were more likely to be stretches. For lunch, for the 24TP-AIT condition v. the other five conditions, reported items were less likely to be intrusions and external confabulations. Mean amounts reported eaten were smaller for stretches than for internal confabulations or external confabulations at breakfast, and for stretches than for internal confabulations at lunch., Conclusions: Accuracy was better for the 24TP (with fewer intrusions of which proportionally more were stretches which had smaller amounts reported eaten) than for the PDTP. Studies with 24 h recalls should minimize retention interval to improve accuracy.

Objective: To investigate whether school-meal observations influenced children's 24-hour dietary recalls., Study Design and Setting: Over three school years, 555 randomly selected fourth-grade children were interviewed to obtain a 24-hour dietary recall; before being interviewed, 374 children were observed eating two school meals (breakfast, lunch), and 181 children were not observed. Within observation-status groups (observed, unobserved), children were randomized within sex to one of six combinations from two target periods (prior 24 hours, previous day) crossed with three interview times (morning, afternoon, evening)., Results: For each of the five variables (interview length, meals/snacks, meal components, items, kilocalories), naïve and adjusted equivalence tests rejected that observation-status groups were different, indicating that school-meal observations did not influence children's 24-hour dietary recalls. There was a target-period effect on length (P<0.0001) (longer for prior-24-hour recalls), a school year effect on length (P=0.0002) (longer for third year), and a target period-interview time interaction on items (P=0.0110) and kilocalories (P=0.0047) (both smaller for previous-day recalls in the afternoon than prior-24-hour recalls in the afternoon and previous-day recalls in the evening), indicating that variables were sufficiently sensitive and psychometrically reliable., Conclusion: Conclusions about 24-hour dietary recalls by fourth-grade children observed eating school meals in validation studies are generalizable to 24-hour dietary recalls by comparable but unobserved children in nonvalidation studies.

Background: For a 24-hour dietary recall, two possible target periods are the prior 24 hours (24 hours immediately preceding the interview time) and previous day (midnight to midnight of the day before the interview), and three possible interview times are morning, afternoon, and evening. Target period and interview time determine the retention interval (elapsed time between to-be-reported meals and the interview), which, along with intervening meals, can influence reporting accuracy., Objective: The effects of target period and interview time on children's accuracy for reporting school meals during 24-hour dietary recalls were investigated. DESIGN AND SUBJECTS/SETTING: During the 2004-2005, 2005-2006, and 2006-2007 school years in Columbia, SC, each of 374 randomly selected fourth-grade children (96% African American) was observed eating two consecutive school meals (breakfast and lunch) and interviewed to obtain a 24-hour dietary recall using one of six conditions defined by crossing two target periods with three interview times. Each condition had 62 or 64 children (half boys)., Main Outcome Measures: Accuracy for reporting school meals was quantified by calculating rates for omissions (food items observed eaten but unreported) and intrusions (food items reported eaten but unobserved); a measure of total inaccuracy combined errors for reporting food items and amounts., Statistical Analyses Performed: For each accuracy measure, analysis of variance was conducted with target period, interview time, their interaction, sex, interviewer, and school year in the model., Results: There was a target-period effect and a target-period by interview-time interaction on omission rates, intrusion rates, and total inaccuracy (six P values <0.004). For prior-24-hour recalls compared to previous-day recalls, and for prior-24-hour recalls in the afternoon and evening compared to previous-day recalls in the afternoon and evening, omission rates were better by one third, intrusion rates were better by one half, and total inaccuracy was better by one third., Conclusions: To enhance children's dietary recall accuracy, target periods and interview times that minimize the retention interval should be chosen.

Validation-study data and foodservice production records were analyzed to test hypotheses concerning sources of intrusions (reports of uneaten items) in the school-meal parts of children's dietary recalls. Each child was observed eating school meals on two days, and interviewed the morning after each observation day; one interview used forward-order (morning-to-evening) and one used reverse-order (evening-to-morning) prompts. Lunch intrusions were likelier to have been available in the foodservice environment at lunch as day before the interview came closer, and on days before than after the interview. Temporal dating errors are contributing sources of intrusions in the school-lunch parts of children's recalls.

For school breakfast each day, many elementary schools offer a choice between a cold option that includes ready-to-eat (RTE) cereal and a hot option that includes a non-RTE-cereal entrée such as waffles. For breakfast reports, intrusions (reports of uneaten items) in correctly reported and misreported breakfast options were examined using data from five dietary-reporting validation studies. In each study, fourth-grade children were observed eating school breakfast and school lunch and then interviewed to obtain a dietary recall. A breakfast option was correctly reported in 240 breakfast reports for 203 intrusions total, and misreported in 97 breakfast reports for 189 intrusions total. Asymmetry was evident in misreported options; specifically, children observed eating a cold option almost never misreported a hot option, but children observed eating a hot option often misreported a cold option. Proportionately more breakfast reports were intrusion-free when a breakfast option was correctly reported than misreported. Linking of intrusions (i.e., multiple intrusions from the same option in a breakfast report) was especially evident with misreported breakfast options. Methodological aspects of dietary recalls such as target period (prior 24h; previous day), interview time (morning; afternoon; evening), and interview format (meal; open) had implications for intrusions and misreported breakfast options.

Dietary-reporting validation study data and school foodservice production records were used to examine intrusions (reports of uneaten items) in school meals in 24-h recalls. Fourth-grade children [20 low-BMI (> or = 5th and < 50th percentiles); 20 high-BMI (> or = 85th percentile); 50% boys; 75% black] were each observed eating two school meals (breakfast, lunch) and interviewed about the prior 24h that evening (24E) or the previous day the next morning (PDM). Social desirability was assessed. Intrusions were classified as stretches (on meal tray), internal confabulations (in school foodservice environment but not on meal tray), and external confabulations (not in school foodservice environment). For breakfast, reported items were less likely to be intrusions for black than white children, and for low-BMI boys than the other BMI-x-sex groups, and to be external confabulations for high-BMI girls than high-BMI boys. For lunch, reported items and intrusions were more likely to be stretches for 24E than PDM interviews. As social desirability increased, fewer items were reported for breakfast, and reported items and intrusions were more likely to be internal confabulations for lunch. For breakfast, compared to low-BMI girls, as social desirability increased, intruded amounts were larger for high-BMI boys and smaller for high-BMI girls. For lunch, intruded amounts were smaller for high-BMI girls than the other BMI-x-sex groups. Amounts reported were smaller for stretches than internal confabulations and external confabulations for breakfast, and external confabulations for lunch. To better understand intrusions, dietary-reporting validation studies are needed with larger samples by BMI-group, sex, and race.

Background: Intrusions in dietary recalls may originate in confusion of episodic memories manifested as temporal dating errors., Objective: Data from a validation study (concerning reporting accuracy over multiple recalls) and school foodservice production records were used to investigate origins of intrusions in school meals in children's 24-hour recalls. DESIGN/SUBJECTS/SETTING: During the 1999-2000 school year, 104 fourth-grade children were observed eating school meals on 1 to 3 nonconsecutive days separated by >or=25 days, and interviewed about the previous day's intake in the morning on the day after each observation day., Statistical Analyses Performed: For breakfast and lunch separately, logistic regression was used to investigate the effect of time (ie, days) before the interview day on the probability that intrusions referred to items available in the school foodservice environment. Exploratory analyses were conducted for breakfast options observed and/or reported eaten., Results: For interviews in which reported meals met criteria to be considered school meals and that contained intrusions, of 634 and 699 items reported eaten at breakfast and lunch, respectively, 394 and 331 were intrusions. Availability in the school foodservice environment of items referred to by intrusions in reports of lunch, but not breakfast, decreased as days increased before the interview day (P=0.031 and P=0.285, respectively). Concerning breakfast, children observed eating a cold option (ie, ready-to-eat cereal, milk, juice, crackers [graham or animal]) almost always reported a cold option, whereas children observed eating a hot option (ie, non-ready-to-eat cereal entrée [eg, sausage biscuit], milk, and fruit or juice) reported a cold option in approximately 50% of interviews., Conclusions: In children's 24-hour recalls, confusion of episodic memories contributes to intrusions in school lunch, and generic dietary information (eg, cold option items available daily) or confusion of episodic memories may contribute to intrusions in school breakfast. Understanding the origins of intrusions may help in developing interview methods to decrease the occurrence of intrusions.

Objective: To compare reporting accuracy for breakfast and lunch in 2 studies., Design: Children were observed eating school meals and interviewed the following morning about the previous day. In Study 1, 104 children were each interviewed 1 to 3 times with >or=25 days separating any 2 interviews. In Study 2, 121 children were each interviewed once in forward (morning-to-evening) and once in reverse (evening-to-morning) order, with these interviews separated by >or=29 days., Setting: 12 schools., Participants: Fourth-grade children., Main Outcome Measures: For each meal, food-item variables (observed number, reported number, omission rate, intrusion rate, total inaccuracy) and kcal variables (observed, reported, correspondence rate, inflation ratio)., Analysis: General linear mixed models., Results: For each study, observed and reported numbers of items and kcal, and correspondence rate (reporting accuracy), were greater for lunch than for breakfast; omission rate, intrusion rate, and inflation ratio (measures of reporting error) were greater for breakfast than for lunch. In Study 1, for each meal over interviews, total inaccuracy decreased and correspondence rate increased. In Study 2, for each meal for boys for reverse and for girls for forward order, omission rate was lower and correspondence rate was higher., Conclusions and Implications: Breakfast was reported less accurately than lunch. Despite improvement over interviews (Study 1) and differences for order x sex (Study 2), reporting accuracy was low for breakfast and lunch.

Objective: Validation-study data are used to illustrate that conventional energy and macronutrient (protein, carbohydrate, fat) variables, which disregard accuracy of reported items and amounts, misrepresent reporting accuracy. Reporting-error-sensitive variables are proposed which classify reported items as matches or intrusions, and reported amounts as corresponding or overreported., Methods: 58 girls and 63 boys were each observed eating school meals on 2 days separated by > or =4 weeks, and interviewed the morning after each observation day. One interview per child had forward-order (morning-to-evening) prompts; one had reverse-order prompts. Original food-item-level analyses found a sex-x-order prompt interaction for omission rates. Current analyses compared reference (observed) and reported information transformed to energy and macronutrients., Results: Using conventional variables, reported amounts were less than reference amounts (ps<0.001; paired t-tests); report rates were higher for the first than second interview for energy, protein, and carbohydrate (ps< or =0.049; mixed models). Using reporting-error-sensitive variables, correspondence rates were higher for girls with forward- but boys with reverse-order prompts (ps< or =0.041; mixed models); inflation ratios were lower with reverse- than forward-order prompts for energy, carbohydrate, and fat (ps< or =0.045; mixed models)., Conclusions: Conventional variables overestimated reporting accuracy and masked order prompt and sex effects. Reporting-error-sensitive variables are recommended when assessing accuracy for energy and macronutrients in validation studies.