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We assess the likelihood of moderate and severe psychological distress among Black immigrants. We test the region of context framework, which states that Black immigrants from majority-Black and racially mixed regions of origin have better health outcomes than Black immigrants from majority-white contexts. We utilize data from IPUMS Health Surveys, 2000–2018. We employed partial proportional odds models to assess the likelihood of moderate and severe psychological distress among Black immigrants and U.S.-born Black Americans. All immigrant groups, except for Black Europeans, are significantly less likely to be in moderate and severe distress vis-a-vis U.S.-born Black Americans (p

AIM: Using a nationally representative sample of African American men, this study investigated the associations between lifetime history of incarceration, discrimination, and mental health (e.g. depressive symptoms and psychological distress). We hypothesized that discrimination would fully mediate the association between incarceration history and mental health outcomes among African American men. METHODS: Using a cross-sectional design, our analysis included 1,271 African American men who participated in the National Survey of American Life (NSAL), 2001–2003. Incarceration history was the main independent variable. Depressive symptoms and psychological distress were the dependent variables. Everyday discrimination was the mediator. Age, education, and income were covariates. Structural equation models (SEM) were used for data analysis. RESULTS: Among African American men, incarceration history was positively associated with perceived discrimination, depressive symptoms, and psychological distress. Everyday discrimination fully mediated the associations between incarceration history and both depressive symptoms and psychological distress. CONCLUSION: Discrimination may play an important role in the mental health problems of African American men with a history of incarceration. These findings have public policy implications as well as clinical implications for mental health promotion of African American men. Policies that reduce preventable incarceration or at least reduce subsequent discrimination for those who have been incarcerated may enhance mental health of previously incarcerated African American men.

Objectives This study examined the impact of everyday discrimination (both racial and non-racial) on the mental health of older African Americans. Methods This analysis is based on the older African American subsample of the National Survey of American Life (NSAL) (n = 773). We examined the associations between everyday discrimination and both general distress and psychiatric disorders as measured by the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV). Six dependent variables were examined: lifetime mood disorders, lifetime anxiety disorders, any lifetime disorder, number of lifetime disorders, depressive symptoms as measured by the 12-item Center for Epidemiological Scale of Depression (CES-D), and serious psychological distress as measured by the Kessler 6 (K6). Results Overall, racial and non-racial everyday discrimination were consistently associated with worse mental health for older African Americans. Older African Americans who experienced higher levels of overall everyday discrimination had higher odds of any psychiatric disorder, any lifetime mood disorder, any lifetime anxiety disorder, and more lifetime DSM-IV disorders, in addition to elevated levels of depressive symptoms and serious psychological distress. These findings were similar for both racial discrimination and non-racial discrimination. Conclusions This study documents the harmful association of not only racial discrimination, but also non-racial (and overall) discrimination with the mental health of older African Americans. Specifically, discrimination is negatively associated with mood and anxiety disorders as well as depressive symptoms and psychological distress. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Social stratification theory predicts that racial minorities and women should have poorer mental health outcomes than Whites and men because they have less social power and fewer resources. Empirical investigations, however, reveal that race and gender differences are far more complex than theory would predict. Women are more distressed than men but distress levels are similar for Blacks and Whites. Women experience internalizing disorders such as major depression and men experience externalizing disorder such as substance abuse, but the overall prevalence of mental disorders does not vary by gender. Even more puzzling is that the overall prevalence diagnosable mental disorder is lower among Blacks than among Whites. We draw on upon intersectionality and stress perspectives to review the complex gender and race patterns observed in the epidemiology of mental health and conclude with a discussion of future research.

How racial identity influences self-esteem and psychological well-being among African Americans remains unresolved due to unexplained inconsistencies in theoretical predictions and empirical findings. Using data from the National Survey of American Life (N = 3,570), we tested hypotheses derived from social identity theory and the internalized racism perspective. Findings support social identity theory in showing that African Americans strongly identify with their group and view it very positively. In addition, those who identify more with their group and evaluate it more positively have greater self-esteem, greater mastery, and fewer depressive symptoms. However, findings also support the internalized racism perspective by showing that when group evaluation is relatively negative, racial identification is related to lower mastery and higher depressive symptoms. We conclude that both social identity theory and the internalized racism perspective are necessary for understanding how racial identity is related to self-attitudes and mental health among African Americans.

Financial stress, which is common among African Americans, has been linked to higher psychological distress. This study examines whether racial identity moderates the association of financial stress with depressive symptoms. If so, through what mechanisms does it operate? We investigated these questions in a moderated mediation analysis, using data from the National Survey of American Life ( N = 3,570). Of the two racial identity dimensions examined, positive group evaluation but not closeness to other African Americans was associated with less adverse effects of financial stress on depressive symptoms. In addition, we tested two mechanisms that could explain the buffering effect. Psychological resources (self-esteem and, less consistently, mastery), explained 26% to 46% of the buffering effects of racial identity; family support explained 8%. That is, positive group evaluations fortify African Americans in the face of hard times. They do so primarily through their association with a greater sense of self-worth.

Social stratification profoundly affects mental health. Specifically, substantial empirical evidence finds that higher status promotes mental health via a higher sense of control and a propensity to cope actively with problems. An unresolved issue, though, is whether the effects of sense of control and active coping on mental health are uniformly beneficial across levels of socioeconomic status. Perceived control and John Henryism, an active coping style, may undermine mental health, especially for lower-status persons, who lack resources. Using data from the National Comorbidity Survey for African Americans, Hispanics, and whites, we find that both sense of control and John Henryism tend to be monotonically related to positive mental health regardless of socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity.

Researchers often assume that the extent, quality, and effectiveness of personal relationships explain why African Americans have relatively good mental health despite experiencing high levels of stress. This study tests this assumption using data from the 1990–1992 National Comorbidity Survey. Few racial differences emerge in patterns of social relationships, and the nature and quality of social relationships do not explain African Americans’ resiliency on mental health. Several aspects of social relationships benefit African Americans’ mental health more than Whites’, but these moderating effects are insubstantial. Hence, the data do not support the assumption. If social relationships help explain the lack of racial differences in mental health, their nature and effects must be more adequately conceptualized.

Background: The flooding of New Orleans after Hurricane Katrina revealed the disproportionate vulnerability of ethnic minority communities for emergency preparedness, disaster relief and health. Nurses need to analyse Katrina's health consequences for the most vulnerable segments of our society. Aim: To examine factors contributing to differential health outcomes among the New Orleans Vietnamese community in response to Katrina. Methods: A sample of 113 adult Vietnamese Katrina survivors from New Orleans was recruited. A mixed-method approach, including survey and focus groups, was used to collect data. Survey questions were modified from standardized instruments to evaluate survivors' health status and factors contributing to health outcomes. Multivariate and content analysis were used to investigate effects of prior trauma, financial strain, social support and acculturation level in predicting survivors' health outcomes. Results: Findings suggested financial strain was the strongest risk factor for Vietnamese survivors' post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms, and physical and mental health post-disaster; while social support was a strong protective factor for health. Survivors who perceived higher impact from previous traumatic experiences had poorer physical health, but not PTSD symptoms or poor mental health after controlling for financial strain and social support, suggesting complex relationships among these measures in predicting PTSD symptoms and health. Less-acculturated individuals also reported higher levels of PTSD symptoms and poorer physical health. Conclusions: Catastrophic events like Katrina can result in disproportionate risk of negative health outcomes among vulnerable populations. Nurses should take into account prior trauma, financial strain, social support network and acculturation level, to adequately address survivors' needs.

This chapter distinguishes stressors, stress, and distress in the interest of bringing the use of these terms more into line with the way they are used in the stress literature and to reduce the problems of inconsistent usage prevalent in the discussion of stress in everyday life. It discusses two original stress models- biological and engineering. The chapter distinguishes varieties of stress, from life events to chronic to traumas to nonevents to daily hassles, at the individual level. It demonstrates that these distinctions are empirically supported by findings that different sources of stress have distinct impacts on mental health outcomes. The chapter discusses the issue of misconceptions about stress to argue that stress, although a general concept is a concept with theoretical and operational borders. It reviews trends in stress research, which reveal an upward trajectory in the study of all of the kinds of stress.