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Direct observation of rapid membrane potential changes is critical to understand how complex neurological systems function. This knowledge is especially important when stimulation is achieved through an external stimulus meant to mimic a naturally occurring process. To enable exploration of this dynamic space, we developed an all-optical method for observing rapid changes in membrane potential at temporal resolutions of ∼25 ns. By applying a single 600-ns electric pulse, we observed sub-microsecond, continuous membrane charging and discharging dynamics. Close agreement between the acquired results and an analytical membrane-charging model validates the utility of this technique. This tool will deepen our understanding of the role of membrane potential dynamics in the regulation of many biological and chemical processes within living systems.

Above a threshold electric field strength, 600 ns-duration pulsed electric field (nsPEF) exposure substantially porates and permeabilizes cellular plasma membranes in aqueous solution to many small ions. Repetitive exposures increase permeabilization to calcium ions (Ca2+) in a dosage-dependent manner. Such exposure conditions can create relatively long-lived pores that reseal after passive lateral diffusion of lipids should have closed the pores. One explanation for eventual pore resealing is active membrane repair, and an ubiquitous repair mechanism in mammalian cells is lysosome exocytosis. A previous study shows that intracellular lysosome movement halts upon a 16.2 kV/cm, 600-ns PEF exposure of a single train of 20 pulses at 5 Hz. In that study, lysosome stagnation qualitatively correlates with the presence of Ca2+ in the extracellular solution and with microtubule collapse. The present study tests the hypothesis that limitation of nsPEF-induced Ca2+ influx and colloid osmotic cell swelling permits unabated lysosome translocation in exposed cells. The results indicate that the efforts used herein to preclude Ca2+ influx and colloid osmotic swelling following nsPEF exposure did not prevent attenuation of lysosome translocation. Intracellular lysosome movement is inhibited by nsPEF exposure(s) in the presence of PEG 300-containing solution or by 20 pulses of nsPEF in the presence of extracellular calcium. The only cases with no significant decreases in lysosome movement are the sham and exposure to a single nsPEF in Ca2+-free solution.

Nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF) have proven useful for transporting cargo across cell membranes and selectively activating cellular pathways. The chemistry and biophysics governing this cellular response, however, are complex and not well understood. Recent studies have shown that the conductivity of the solution cells are exposed in could play a significant role in plasma membrane permeabilization and, thus, the overall cellular response. Unfortunately, the means of detecting this membrane perturbation has traditionally been limited to analyzing one possible consequence of the exposure – diffusion of molecules across the membrane. This method has led to contradictory results with respect to the relationship between permeabilization and conductivity. Diffusion experiments also suffer from “saturation conditions” making multi-pulse experiments difficult. As a result, this method has been identified as a key stumbling block to understanding the effects of nsPEF exposure. To overcome these limitations, we recently developed a nonlinear optical imaging technique based on second harmonic generation (SHG) that allows us to identify nanoporation in live cells during the pulse in a wide array of conditions. As a result, we are able to explore and fully test whether lower conductivity extracellular solutions could induce more efficient nanoporation. This hypothesis is based on membrane charging and the relative difference between the extracellular solution and the cytoplasm. The experiments also allow us to test the noise floor of our methodology against the effects of ion leakage. The results emphasize that the electric field, not ionic phenomenon, are the driving force behind nsPEF-induced membrane nanoporation.

Short infrared laser pulses induce a variety of effects in cells and tissues, including neural stimulation and inhibition. However, the mechanism behind these physiological effects is poorly understood. It is known that the fast thermal gradient induced by the infrared light is necessary for these biological effects. Therefore, this study tests the hypothesis that the fast thermal gradient induced in a cell by infrared light exposure causes a change in the membrane fluidity. To test this hypothesis, we used the membrane fluidity dye, di-4-ANEPPDHQ, to investigate membrane fluidity changes following infrared light exposure. Di-4-ANEPPDHQ fluorescence was imaged on a wide-field fluorescence imaging system with dual channel emission detection. The dual channel imaging allowed imaging of emitted fluorescence at wavelengths longer and shorter than 647 nm for ratiometric assessment and computation of a membrane generalized polarization (GP) value. Results in CHO cells show increased membrane fluidity with infrared light pulse exposure and this increased fluidity scales with infrared irradiance. Full recovery of pre-infrared exposure membrane fluidity was observed. Altogether, these results demonstrate that infrared light induces a thermal gradient in cells that changes membrane fluidity.

Exposure to nanosecond pulsed electrical fields (nsPEFs) results in a myriad of observable effects in mammalian cells. While these effects are often attributed to the direct permeabilization of both the plasma and organelle membranes, the underlying mechanism(s) are not well understood. We hypothesize that nsPEF-induced membrane disturbance will initiate complex intracellular lipid signaling pathways, which ultimately lead to the observed multifarious effects. In this article, we show activation of one of these pathways--phosphoinositide signaling cascade. Here we demonstrate that nsPEF initiates phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) hydrolysis or depletion from the plasma membrane, accumulation of inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) in the cytoplasm and increase of diacylglycerol (DAG) on the inner surface of the plasma membrane. All of these events are initiated by a single 16.2 kV/cm, 600 ns pulse exposure. To further this claim, we show that the nsPEF-induced activation mirrors the response of M1-acetylcholine Gq/11-coupled metabotropic receptor (hM1). This demonstration of PIP2 hydrolysis by nsPEF exposure is an important step toward understanding the mechanisms underlying this unique stimulus for activation of lipid signaling pathways and is critical for determining the potential for nsPEFs to modulate mammalian cell functions.

We recently developed a nonlinear optical imaging technique based on second harmonic generation (SHG) to identify membrane disruption events in live cells. This technique was used to detect nanoporation in the plasma membrane following nanosecond pulsed electric field (nsPEF) exposure. It has been hypothesized that similar poration events could be induced by the thermal gradients generated by infrared (IR) laser energy. Optical pulses are a highly desirable stimulus for the nervous system, as they are capable of inhibiting and producing action potentials in a highly localized but non-contact fashion. However, the underlying mechanisms involved with infrared neural stimulation (INS) are not well understood. The ability of our method to non-invasively measure membrane structure and transmembrane potential via Two Photon Fluorescence (TPF) make it uniquely suited to neurological research. In this work, we leverage our technique to understand what role membrane structure plays during INS and contrast it with nsPEF stimulation. We begin by examining the effect of IR pulses on CHO-K1 cells before progressing to primary hippocampal neurons. The use of these two cell lines allows us to directly compare poration as a result of IR pulses to nsPEF exposure in both a neuron-derived cell line, and one likely lacking native channels sensitive to thermal stimuli.

Plasma membrane disruption can trigger a host of cellular activities. One commonly observed type of disruption is pore formation. Molecular dynamic (MD) simulations of simplified lipid membrane structures predict that controllably disrupting the membrane via nano-scale poration may be possible with nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF). Until recently, researchers hoping to verify this hypothesis experimentally have been limited to measuring the relatively slow process of fluorescent markers diffusing across the membrane, which is indirect evidence of nanoporation that could be channel-mediated. Leveraging recent advances in nonlinear optical microscopy, we elucidate the role of pulse parameters in nsPEF-induced membrane permeabilization in live cells. Unlike previous techniques, it is able to directly observe loss of membrane order at the onset of the pulse. We also develop a complementary theoretical model that relates increasing membrane permeabilization to membrane pore density. Due to the significantly improved spatial and temporal resolution possible with our imaging method, we are able to directly compare our experimental and theoretical results. Their agreement provides substantial evidence that nanoporation does occur and that its development is dictated by the electric field distribution.

Short infrared (IR) laser pulses on the order of hundreds of microseconds to single milliseconds with typical wavelengths of 1800-2100 nm, have shown the capability to reversibly stimulate action potentials (AP) in neuronal cells. While the IR stimulation technique has proven successful for several applications, the exact mechanism(s) underlying the AP generation has remained elusive. To better understand how IR pulses cause AP stimulation, we determined the threshold for the formation of nanopores in the plasma membrane. Using a surrogate calcium ion, thallium, which is roughly the same shape and charge, but lacks the biological functionality of calcium, we recorded the flow of thallium ions into an exposed cell in the presence of a battery of channel antagonists. The entry of thallium into the cell indicated that the ions entered via nanopores. The data presented here demonstrate a basic understanding of the fundamental effects of IR stimulation and speculates that nanopores, formed in response to the IR exposure, play an upstream role in the generation of AP.

Previous work from our laboratory demonstrated nanopore formation in cell membranes following exposure to nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF). We observed differences in sensitivity to nsPEF in both acute membrane injury and 24 h lethality across multiple cells lines. Based on these data, we hypothesize that the biological response of cells to nsPEF is dependent on the physical properties of the plasma membrane (PM), including regional cholesterol content. Results presented in this paper show that depletion of membrane cholesterol disrupts the PM and increases the permeability of cells to small molecules, including propidium iodide and calcium occurring after fewer nsPEF. Additionally, cholesterol depletion concurrently decreases the “dose” of nsPEF required to induce lethality. In summary, the results of the current study suggest that the PM cholesterol composition is an important determinant in the cellular response to nsPEF.

Previous work from our laboratory demonstrated significant nanopore formation in cellular membranes following exposure of cells to nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF). We hypothesize that the sensitivity of cells to nsPEF is dependent on the properties of the plasma membrane, including lipid microdomains. Results show that depletion of membrane cholesterol increases the sensitivity of cells to nsPEF. Cholesterol depletion increases the permeability of cells to small molecules, including propidium iodide and calcium, at shorter nsPEF exposures. In contrast, depletion of caveolin, an important protein component of membrane lipid microdomains, renders the cells less sensitive to nsPEF. The results of the current study suggest that plasma membrane cholesterol and proteins are important determinants in the cellular response to nsPEF.

Exposure of cells to nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF) causes a rapid increase in intracellular calcium. The mechanism(s) responsible for this calcium burst remains unknown, but is hypothesized to be from direct influx through nanopores, the activation of specific ion channels, or direct disruption of organelles. It is likely, however, that several mechanisms are involved/activated, thereby resulting in a complex chain of events that are difficult to separate by slow imaging methods. In this letter, we describe a novel high-speed imaging system capable of determining the spatial location of calcium bursts within a single cell following nsPEF exposure. Preliminary data in rodent neuroblastoma cells are presented, demonstrating the ability of this system to track the location of calcium bursts in vitro within milliseconds of exposure. These data reveal that calcium ions enter the cell from the plasma membrane regions closest to the electrodes (poles), and that intracellular calcium release occurs in the absence of extracellular calcium. We believe that this novel technique will allow us to temporally and spatially separate various nsPEF-induced effects, leading to powerful insights into the mechanism(s) of interaction between electric fields and cellular membranes.

The mechanism(s) responsible for the breakdown (nanoporation) of cell plasma membranes after nanosecond pulse (nsEP) exposure remains poorly understood. Current theories focus exclusively on the electrical field, citing electrostriction, water dipole alignment and/or electrodeformation as the primary mechanisms for pore formation. However, the delivery of a high-voltage nsEP to cells by tungsten electrodes creates a multitude of biophysical phenomena, including electrohydraulic cavitation, electrochemical interactions, thermoelastic expansion and others. To date, very limited research has investigated non-electric phenomena occurring during nsEP exposures and their potential effect on cell nanoporation. Of primary interest is the production of acoustic shock waves during nsEP exposure, as it is known that acoustic shock waves can cause membrane poration (sonoporation). Based on these observations, our group characterized the acoustic pressure transients generated by nsEP and determined if such transients played any role in nanoporation. In this paper, we show that nsEP exposures, equivalent to those used in cellular studies, are capable of generating high-frequency (2.5 MHz), high-intensity (>13 kPa) pressure transients. Using confocal microscopy to measure cell uptake of YO-PRO®-1 (indicator of nanoporation of the plasma membrane) and changing the electrode geometry, we determined that acoustic waves alone are not responsible for poration of the membrane.

As an increasing number of studies use gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) for potential medicinal, biosensing and therapeutic applications, the synthesis and use of readily functional, bio-compatible nanoparticles is receiving much interest. For these efforts, the particles are often taken up by the cells to allow for optimum sensing or therapeutic measures. This process typically requires incubation of the particles with the cells for an extended period. In an attempt to shorten and control this incubation, we investigated whether nanosecond pulsed electric field (nsPEF) exposure of cells will cause a controlled uptake of the particles. NsPEF are known to induce the formation of nanopores in the plasma membrane, so we hypothesized that by controlling the number, amplitude or duration of the nsPEF exposure, we could control the size of the nanopores, and thus control the particle uptake. Chinese hamster ovary (CHO-K1) cells were incubated sub-10 nm AuNPs with and without exposure to 600-ns electrical pulses. Contrary to our hypothesis, the nsPEF exposure was found to actually decrease the particle uptake in the exposed cells. This result suggests that the nsPEF exposure may be affecting the endocytotic pathway and processes due to membrane disruption.

The underlying mechanism(s) responsible for nanoporation of phospholipid membranes by nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsEP) remains unknown. The passage of a high electric field through a conductive medium creates two primary contributing factors that may induce poration: the electric field interaction at the membrane and the shockwave produced from electrostriction of a polar submersion medium exposed to an electric field. Previous work has focused on the electric field interaction at the cell membrane, through such models as the transport lattice method. Our objective is to model the shock wave cell membrane interaction induced from the density perturbation formed at the rising edge of a high voltage pulse in a polar liquid resulting in a shock wave propagating away from the electrode toward the cell membrane. Utilizing previous data from cell membrane mechanical parameters, and nsEP generated shockwave parameters, an acoustic shock wave model based on the Helmholtz equation for sound pressure was developed and coupled to a cell membrane model with finite-element modeling in COMSOL. The acoustic structure interaction model was developed to illustrate the harmonic membrane displacements and stresses resulting from shockwave and membrane interaction based on Hooke’s law. Poration is predicted by utilizing membrane mechanical breakdown parameters including cortical stress limits and hydrostatic pressure gradients.

Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) imaging is a useful tool for examining the structure of interfaces between bulk materials. Recently, this technique was applied to detecting subtle perturbations in the structure of cellular membranes following nanosecond pulsed electric field (nsPEF) exposure. Monitoring the cell’s outer membrane as it is exposed to nsPEF via SHG has demonstrated that nanoporation is likely the root cause for size-specific, increased cytoplasmic membrane permeabilization. It is theorized that the area of the membrane covered by these pores is tied to pulse intensity or duration. The extent of this effect along the cell’s surface, however, has never been measured due to its temporal brevity and minute pore size. By enhancing the SHG technique developed and elucidated previously, we are able to obtain this information. Further, we vary the pulse width and amplitude of the applied stimulus to explore the mechanical changes of the membrane at various sites around the cell. By using this unique SHG imaging technique to directly visualize the change in order of phospholipids within the membrane, we are able to better understand the complex response of living cells to electric pulses.

The requirement of center asymmetry for the creation of second harmonic generation (SHG) signals makes it an attractive technique for visualizing changes in interfacial layers such as the plasma membrane of biological cells. In this article, we explore the use of lipophilic SHG probes to detect minute perturbations in the plasma membrane. Three candidate probes, Di-4-ANEPPDHQ (Di-4), FM4-64, and all-trans-retinol, were evaluated for SHG effectiveness in Jurkat cells. Di-4 proved superior with both strong SHG signal and limited bleaching artifacts. To test whether rapid changes in membrane symmetry could be detected using SHG, we exposed cells to nanosecond-pulsed electric fields, which are believed to cause formation of nanopores in the plasma membrane. Upon nanosecond-pulsed electric fields exposure, we observed an instantaneous drop of ∼50% in SHG signal from the anodic pole of the cell. When compared to the simultaneously acquired fluorescence signals, it appears that the signal change was not due to the probe diffusing out of the membrane or changes in membrane potential or fluidity. We hypothesize that this loss in SHG signal is due to disruption in the interfacial nature of the membrane. The results show that SHG imaging has great potential as a tool for measuring rapid and subtle plasma membrane disturbance in living cells.

Nanoelectroporation of biomembranes is an effect of high-voltage, nanosecond-duration electric pulses (nsEP). It occurs both in the plasma membrane and inside the cell, and nanoporated membranes are distinguished by ion-selective and potential-sensitive permeability. Here we report a novel phenomenon of bioeffects cancellation that puts nsEP cardinally apart from the conventional electroporation and electrostimulation by milli- and microsecond pulses. We compared the effects of 60- and 300-ns monopolar, nearly rectangular nsEP on intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization and cell survival with those of bipolar 60 + 60 and 300 + 300 ns pulses. For diverse endpoints, exposure conditions, pulse numbers (1-60), and amplitudes (15-60 kV/cm), the addition of the second phase cancelled the effects of the first phase. The overall effect of bipolar pulses was profoundly reduced, despite delivering twofold more energy. Cancellation also took place when two phases were separated into two independent nsEP of opposite polarities; it gradually tapered out as the interval between two nsEP increased, but was still present even at a 10-µs interval. The phenomenon of cancellation is unique for nsEP and has not been predicted by the equivalent circuit, transport lattice, and molecular dynamics models of electroporation. The existing paradigms of membrane permeabilization by nsEP will need to be modified. Here we discuss the possible involvement of the assisted membrane discharge, two-step oxidation of membrane phospholipids, and reverse transmembrane ion transport mechanisms. Cancellation impacts nsEP applications in cancer therapy, electrostimulation, and biotechnology, and provides new insights into effects of more complex waveforms, including pulsed electromagnetic emissions.

Nonlinear optical probes, especially those involving second harmonic generation (SHG), have proven useful as sensors for near-instantaneous detection of alterations to or ientation or energetics within a substance. This has been exploited to some success for observing conformational changes in proteins. SHG probes, therefore, hold promise for reporting rapid and minute changes in lipid membranes. In this report, one of these probes is employed in this regard, using nanosecond electric pulses (nsEPs) as a vehicle for instigating subtle membrane perturbations. The result provides a useful tool and methodology for the observation of minute membrane perturbation, while also providing meaningful information on the phenomenon of electropermeabilization due to nsEP. The SHG probe Di-4-ANEPPDHQ is used in conjunction with a tuned optical setup to demonstrate nanoporation preferential to one hemisphere, or pole, of the cell given a single square shaped pulse. The results also confirm a correlation of pulse width to the amount of poration. Furthermore, the polarity of this event and the membrane physics of both hemispheres, the poles facing either electrode, were tested using bipolar pulses consisting of two pulses of opposite polarity. The experiment corroborates findings by other researchers that these types of pulses are less effective in causing repairable damage to the lipid membrane of cells.

Despite 30 years of research, the mechanism behind the induced breakdown of plasma membranes by electrical pulses, termed electroporation, remains unknown. Current theories treat the interaction between the electrical field and the membrane as an entirely electrical event pointing to multiple plausible mechanisms. By investigating the biophysical interaction between plasma membranes and nanosecond electrical pulses (nsEP), we may have identified a non-electric field driven mechanism, previously unstudied in nsEP, which could be responsible for nanoporation of plasma membranes. In this investigation, we use a non-contact optical technique, termed probe beam deflection technique (PBDT), to characterize acoustic shockwaves generated by nsEP traveling through tungsten wire electrodes. We conclude these acoustic shockwaves are the result of the nsEP exposure imparting electrohydraulic forces on the buffer solution. When these acoustic shockwaves occur in close proximity to lipid bilayer membranes, it is possible that they impart a sufficient amount of mechanical stress to cause poration of that membrane. This research establishes for the first time that nsEP discharged in an aqueous medium generate measureable pressure waves of a magnitude capable of mechanical deformation and possibly damage to plasma membranes. These findings provide a new insight into the longunanswered question of how electric fields cause the breakdown of plasma membranes.

It has been shown that exposure of live neurons to a low-intensity pulsed infrared light can be used to excite action potentials. Infrared pulsed laser coupled to an optical fiber can be utilized to create a rapid localized increase in temperature in the vicinity of the cell. The resulting temperature gradient leads to an increase in membrane fluidity and permeability, causing depolarization of the target cell. In order to characterize the fluidity of the cell membrane at various temperatures with and without pulsed IR light exposure, we used a polarity-sensitive fluorescent probe di-4- ANEPPDHQ. This dye exhibits a fluorescent shift between the disordered and ordered phases of the membrane, and can be used to quantitatively evaluate the state of the membrane by calculating the generalized polarization (GP) value. Using high-speed imaging of cells exposed to a IR light of varying pulse width, it was determined that a longer pulse width leads to a greater change in the GP value. Comparison of GP values of cells at different ambient temperatures without the pulsed IR light exposure and cells exposed to pulsed IR light indicated that a rapid temperature gradient caused by the exposure to pulsed light induces a larger change in GP value than the ambient temperature increase alone, indicating a greater disruption of membrane fluidity and permeability.

Second Harmonic Generation (SHG) microscopy is an effective tool for studying the order of symmetry-breaking interfaces, such as lipid bilayers. Recently, we have shown that disruptions in the interfacial nature of the membrane can be studied with the addition of lipophilic SHG probes, specifically Di-4-ANEPPDHQ (Di-4). In addition to the conformational information provided by the SHG signal, this particular probe can be used to determine lipid phase and transmembrane voltage through the dye's fluorescence behavior. We now strengthen our technique by changing the polarity of the incident laser beam from linear to circular polarization. The modification provides SHG signal around the circumference of the cell in every optical slice, while maintaining a sufficient signal-to-noise ratio. Utilizing nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs) of varying pulse widths and intensities as a tool for provoking spatially and temporally minute perturbations in the cell membrane, we observe membrane poration on the nano-scale. To verify our results, we adapted a previously-published electrical membrane model to map the theoretical angular area affected by these nsPEFs. The tests further establish the effectiveness of SHG probes, in our case Di-4, as a tool for observing subtle membrane alterations and document the extent to which electric fields of varying pulse parameters affect the cellular membrane.

In cellular electrochemistry, ions respond to stimuli by constantly shuffling across cellular membranes to perform their physiological roles. This flow of ions, the electromotive force, leaves cells vulnerable to exogenous electromagnetic fields that can stimulate and/or modulate cellular activity. An irreparable link exists between changes in ionic concentration and the electric gradient of the cell (or its potential energy). Consequently, we can manipulate the physiology of the cell by altering its permeability to various ions, thereby modulating its electrical gradient. Only a few millivolts in excess of the resting membrane potential can stimulate a dramatic change in ion distribution within the cellular microenvironment. In excitable neural-type cells, electrical-stimulation-induced changes in membrane potential lead to the generation or inactivation of action potentials (AP). These AP trigger activities, such as nerve impulses in

The exposure of nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF) to living cells has been shown to create nanopores in the plasma membranes. These nanopores allow the passage of small ions but exclude the transport of larger molecules such as Propidium ions, with permeabilization persisting for many minutes. To characterize these nanopores and the effect of temperature of the formation and resealing of these pores, we have chosen to use 6-Propionyl-2-(N,NDimethylamo) Naphthalene (PRODAN) as an indicator of membrane organization. PRODAN is a fluorescent dye with a large excited-state dipole moment that displays extensive solvent polarity-dependent fluorescent shifts. By monitoring this shift in fluorescence spectrum, disruption of the membrane after an electric exposure is observed as an immediate increase in the membrane fluidity, likely indicating poration of the membrane. High-speed imaging results indicate that a change in membrane organization occurs instantly (

Electric pulses have become an effective tool for transporting cargo (DNA, drugs, etc.) across cell membranes. This enhanced transport is believed to occur through temporary pores formed in the plasma membrane. Traditionally, millisecond duration, monopolar (MP) pulses are used for electroporation, but bipolar (BP) pulses have proven equally effective as MP pulses with the added advantage of less cytotoxicity. With the goal of further reducing cytotoxic effects and inducing non-thermal, intra-cellular effects, researchers began investigating reduced pulse durations, pushing into the nanosecond regime. Cells exposed to these MP, nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEFs) have shown increased repairable membrane permeability and selective channel activation. However, attempts to improve this further by moving to the BP pulse regime has proven unsuccessful. In the present work, we use second harmonic generation imaging to explore the structural effects of bipolar nsPEFs on the plasma membrane. By varying the...

Cells exposed to monopolar (MP) nanosecond pulsed electric fields (nsPEF) exhibit increased membrane permeability. Depending on the intensity and duration of the pulse, this damage could be repairable or induce cell death. Recently, we leveraged a new second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy technique to study the underlying biophysical effects these pulses have on the cellular membrane. We observed nano-scale poration across the entire plasma membrane, but concentrated at the anodic-facing pole of the cell. The polarity of this event suggests that the resting membrane potential may be playing a role. To investigate further, we apply a symmetric bipolar (BP) nsPEF, where the polarity of the pulse is reversed halfway through the pulse duration. Previous studies have shown that BP nsPEF are less effective at inducing cell death than their MP counterparts. Our results suggest that this is due, at least in part, to the dramatically reduced amount of nanoporation present upon onset of BP nsPEF as compared to MP. If an interstitial “off” period is introduced between the two MP pulses making up the BP pulse, the amount of nanoporation increases commensurate with the space between the two MP pulses. This indicates that membrane charging is playing a large role in the nanoporation process.