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This paper summarizes the results of published studies in which physical activity has been performed by patients with panic disorder. Several case studies of apparent exercise-induced panic attacks were found. However, in field studies that involved ambulatory monitoring of panic disorder patients only 1 of 91 panic attacks that were monitored actually occurred while the test subject was engaged in moderately intense physical activity. Moreover, only five panic attacks occurred in association with 444 exercise bouts performed by 420 panic disorder patients in laboratory settings despite the fact that exercise induces somatic signs and symptoms of anxiety. Thus, the weight of the published evidence shows that acute physical activity does not provoke panic attacks in panic disorder patients.

Industrial respirators offer protection for men and women who are required to work in toxic and oxygen-deficient environments. Major advances continue to be made with respect to improved face mask designs and modes of protection, yet only recently have efforts been directed toward the development of criteria for use in evaluating individuals' psychological fitness to wear respirators. The purpose of the present investigation was to confirm (i.e., replicate) an earlier finding, using a simplified protocol, that an individual's tendency to experience respiratory distress during exercise can be predicted. In the present experiment, an independent sample of 38 subjects underwent a maximal exercise test. It was predicted that subjects with elevated trait anxiety scores would experience respiratory distress when required to perform heavy physical exercise using a full-facepiece, air-line supplied, pressure-demand respirator. The prediction of respiratory distress was accurate in 34 of 38 cases (89.5%). It was concluded that an objective measure of trait anxiety can be used to identify those individuals who are most likely to experience distress while performing maximal physical exercise and using a pressure-demand respirator.

Part 1 :general principles methodological considerations mental health through prevention exercise prescription exercise adherence drug therapy and exercise. Part 2: psychological responses to exercise antidepressant effects of exercise anxiolytic effects of exercise exercise and the self-esteem overtraining and staleness. Part 3: hypothesized mechanisms endorphin hypothesis norepinephrine hypothesis serortonin hypothesis thermogenic hypothesis.

Circadian rhythms have been documented for various physiological variables, such as body temperature, heart rate, blood pressure, cortisol, adrenaline (epinephrine) and noradrenaline (norepinephrine) under resting, as well as exercise conditions. The extent to which psychological variables, such as perception of effort, mood states and anxiety, are subject to circadian rhythms at rest and during exercise, is not as well understood. Body temperature follows a circadian rhythm in which temperature is highest in the evening and lowest in the early morning. Exercise heart rate follows a similar rhythm, but peaks a little earlier. The findings for exercise blood pressure are not consistent. Performance of physical activity is generally improved in the afternoon or evening, compared with morning. Cortisol levels follow a circadian rhythm in which cortisol peaks in the morning and decreases throughout the rest of the day, at rest and during exercise. Plasma catecholamines show a rhythm at rest, but the findings during exercise are inconsistent. Research on circadian rhythms of perceived exertion and mood states are equivocal and the limited research on anxiety suggests that the anxiolytic response to exercise is not influenced by time of day.

The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a preferred- versus a prescribed-intensity exercise session on pain in women with fibromyalgia (FM).Twenty-one women with FM (mean age = 44 yr) completed two randomly assigned exercise sessions consisting of 20 min of cycle ergometry at a self-selected intensity and a prescribed intensity. Experimental pain perception was assessed before and after aerobic exercise. During exercise, HR, watts, RPE, and muscle pain were assessed every 5 min. Clinical pain was assessed with the Short-Form McGill Pain Questionnaire (SF-MPQ) immediately and 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after exercise. Data were analyzed with repeated-measures ANOVA.Women with FM preferred a lower intensity of exercise than what was prescribed as indicated by significantly lower HR, watts, and RPE responses (P0.05). Muscle pain in the legs, however, was similar in the two conditions and significantly increased during exercise (P0.05). Pain thresholds and pain tolerances increased significantly after exercise, whereas peak pain ratings decreased after exercise (P0.05). Furthermore, pain (SF-MPQ) in the follow-up period was found to be lower than baseline (P0.05).It is concluded that the women with FM who participated in this study experienced significant improvements in pain after exercise. The results from this study are novel and indicate that recommendations for exercise prescription for individuals with FM should consider the preferred-intensity exercise model as a strategy to reduce pain.

Athletes travel across multiple time zones in order to engage in national or international competition. It has often been assumed that rapid transmeridian translocation has a negative impact on athletic performance. However, the available studies are characterised by major methodological problems. Consequently, no compelling evidence exists demonstrating that air travel adversely influences athletic performance. Evidence suggests that distance and sprint running performance, as well as dynamic muscular strength and endurance of the elbow flexors, is impaired following west-east travel across 6 times zones in untrained individuals. However, there is no evidence that these findings for untrained subjects generalise to athletes. Both physiological and psychological mechanisms might account for potential effects of travel on athletic performance, but little is known about these potential mechanisms with regards to athletic performance. Systematic research is needed if the relationship between air travel and athletic performance is to be elucidated.

Recreational scuba diving is associated with a significant number of fatalities and decompression illnesses each year, and there is evidence that permanent neuropsychological injury can occur in divers. There is also evidence that the principal cause of decompression illness and fatalities in divers is rapid ascent, and it appears that the primary stimulus for rapid ascent is panic. The primary purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the extent to which an objective measure of trait anxiety could be effective in predicting panic behavior in students undergoing scuba training. Trait anxiety was assessed at the outset of scuba instruction in 42 students, and the instructor recorded instances of panic behavior during the 4-month course. It was predicted that individuals scoring 39 or greater on the trait anxiety sub-scale of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory would be more likely to experience panic behavior than individuals with scores below this cut-off. Predictions and actual recordings of panic behavior were performed independently using a blinded paradigm. Eleven of the students exhibited panic behavior on two or more occasions during the instruction, and 35 of 42 (83 %) predictions were accurate (p < 0.001). It is concluded that an objective measure of trait anxiety can be employed a priori for prediction of panic behavior in beginning scuba students.

This study examined the influence of hypnosis, autogenic relaxation, and quiet rest on selected affective states and metabolism. The influence of body position (seated vs. supine) on these same outcome measures was also investigated. Anxiety, tension, and overall mood were assessed before and 30 minutes after each treatment, and oxygen uptake was measured continuously. State anxiety, tension, and a general measure of mood were reduced significantly following each intervention, but oxygen uptake did not change with the exception of small, transient alterations during the physical challenges performed in the hypnosis condition. It is concluded that administration of a routine hypnosis induction to healthy individuals results in a reduction of state anxiety and an improvement of mood commensurate with effects achieved by autogenic training and quiet rest, and these effects occur in both the supine and seated position.

Ginseng has been used in the Orient for several thousand years as an 'adaptogenic' as well as a 'restorative' agent. It has been used to treat nervous disorders, anaemia, wakefulness, dyspnoea, forgetfulness and confusion, prolonged thirst, decreased libido, chronic fatigue, angina and nausea. Although the mechanisms underlying the alleged effects of ginseng remain to be elucidated, there is an extensive animal literature dealing with the effects of ginseng on the cardiovascular system, central nervous system, endocrine system, metabolism, and immune system. In our previous review dealing with the efficacy of ginseng, we concluded that while studies with animals show that ginseng, or its active components, may prolong survival to physical or chemical stress, there is generally a lack of controlled research demonstrating the ability of ginseng to improve or prolong performance in fatigued humans. In this review, we extend our earlier analysis on the potential efficacy of ginseng use in the enhancement of physical performance and modification of fatigue states. Our analysis reveals that published literature appearing since our earlier review has not resolved the equivocal nature of research evidence involving animals or humans. Also, the lack of unanimity in this research can be explained on the basis of various methodological problems such as inadequate sample size and lack of double-blind, control and placebo paradigms. In addition, the absence of acceptable approaches to the problem of 'sourcing', in concert with an absence of compliance data in human research, further complicates the interpretation of this research literature. Nevertheless, the use of ginseng continues to grow, and current sales are estimated to be over $US300 million annually. There is clearly a need for systematic research dealing with the efficacy of ginseng, and this research needs to take into account basic, fundamental design considerations if there is to be any hope of establishing whether or not ginseng possesses efficacy.

The primary purpose of this investigation was to compare 31 competitive female swimmers with 31 competitive male swimmers on their perceptual responses to submaximal swimming. A secondary purpose was to evaluate the relationship between heart rate (HR) and perceived exertion (RPE) in swimming. Each swimmer completed a 200-yd swim in his/her specialty stroke at 90% of the swimmer's current best time. Underwater and overhead pace lights were used to achieve an even pace during the swims, and HR was monitored by means of radiotelemetry. Ratings of overall and local perceived exertion were assessed immediately following each swim with Borg's 6-20 scale. ANOVA revealed no RPE differences across stroke classifications for the female or male swimmers, but local and overall RPE were lower (p less than 0.01) in the females. Mean HR, however, was significantly higher (p less than 0.05) for the female swimmers. Unlike research with other exercise modes, correlational analyses revealed that overall and local RPE were unrelated to HR (p greater than 0.05). Based on these findings, it is concluded that 1) female swimmers judged a paced swim to be less effortful than did male swimmers despite a greater objective strain in the females, and 2) HR was not correlated with perception of effort.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the acute effects of physical activity and relaxation on state anxiety and blood lactate. Thirty male Ss performed resistance exercise (N=15) or cycling (N=15) for 50 min at 70% of maximum, while 30 additional male Ss practiced autogenic relaxation (N=15) or rested quietly (N=15) in a sound chamber for 50 min. Assessment of state anxiety and blood lactate was performed before, 5-10 min and 60 min following treatments. The data were analyzed with a repeated measures ANOVA for multifactor experiments, and results indicate a significant group by trial interaction for state anxiety (p

Psychological consequences of exercise deprivation in habitual exercisers. The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the influence of 3 d of exercise deprivation on selected psychological variables. Ten volunteers (4 female and 6 male) who regularly exercised 6-7 d.wk-1 for at least 45 min at a time participated in a 5-d study. Participants completed their regular workout on the first day of the study, refrained from physical activity for the next 3 d, and then resumed their regular exercise on the 5th d of the study. Participants reported to the lab on Monday following their regular workout and completed a series of questionnaires, and these same questionnaires were completed at the same time of day on the next 4 d. The dependent variables consisted of state and trait anxiety (STAI), and tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue, confusion, and overall mood (POMS). Increases in total mood disturbance, state anxiety, tension, depression, and confusion across days were significant (P < 0.05), and vigor decreased. The pattern of increasing mood disturbance with exercise deprivation was followed by mood improvement to baseline levels when exercise was resumed. We concluded that a brief period of exercise deprivation in habitual exercisers results in mood disturbance within 24-48 h.

This study examined psychometric correlates of rated perceived exertion (RPE) and perceived dyspnea (RPD) during progressive arm ergometry. Thirty female and 30 male subjects completed the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), the Profile of Mood States Questionnaire (POMS) and the Body Awareness Scale (BAS) followed by progressive arm ergometry to exhaustion. Heart rate, minute ventilation, RPD and RPE were obtained during the last 30 seconds of every two minute stage of the exercise test. The female group had significantly (p < 0.05) higher RPE (overall and local), RPD, minute ventilation, and heart rate than did the male group during exercise at absolute power outputs of 33, 50 and 67 watts. At each of these work loads, both state anxiety and body awareness were positively and significantly (p < 0.05) related to RPE and RPD in the male but not in the female sample. Repeated measures ANOVAs revealed that a subset of high trait anxious males (N = 10) exhibited higher minute ventilatory volumes and dyspnea ratings than a subset of low trait anxious males (N = 10). The results show that elevated trait anxiety is associated with dyspnea during arm ergometry and that there are gender differences in psychological correlates of perception during arm exercise, but shed no light on why the gender differences exist.

Scuba diving is a high-risk sport; it is estimated that 3 to 9 deaths per 100 000 divers occur annually in the US alone, in addition to increasing numbers of cases of decompression illness each year. However, there has been a tendency within the diving community to de-emphasise the risks associated with scuba diving. While there are numerous factors responsible for the injuries and fatalities occurring in this sport, there is general consensus that many of these cases are caused by panic. There is also evidence that individuals who are characterised by elevated levels of trait anxiety are more likely to have greater state anxiety responses when exposed to a stressor, and hence, this sub-group of the diving population is at an increased level of risk. Efforts to demonstrate that selected interventions such as hypnosis, imagery, meditation and relaxation can reduce stress responses in anxious divers has not yielded consistent findings, and there is a need for systematic research dealing with the efficacy of selected intervention strategies.

The primary purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the effect of one session of recreational weight training on state anxiety and related constructs. State anxiety, body awareness and blood pressure were evaluated before and within 5-min following 50-min of self-selected weight training activity in a group of 25 subjects, and following 50-min of non-activity for 25 control subjects. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that state anxiety did not change (p > 0.05) significantly following weight training or quiet rest. However, there was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in body awareness in the weight training group, as well as a significant (p < 0.05) trials by conditions interaction in systolic blood pressure. The control group experienced a decrease in systolic blood pressure of 5 mmHg, whereas the exercise group had an increase in blood pressure of 5 mmHg. It is concluded that state anxiety is not altered immediately following one session of recreational weight training activity, but this activity does produce increases in body awareness and systolic blood pressure.

Ginseng has been used in the Orient for several thousand years as an ‘adaptogenic’ as well as a ‘restorative’ agent. It has been used to treat nervous disorders, anaemia, wakefulness, dyspnoea, forgetfulness and confusion, prolonged thirst, decreased libido, chronic fatigue, angina and nausea. Although the mechanisms underlying the alleged effects of ginseng remain to be elucidated, there is an extensive animal literature dealing with the effects of ginseng on the cardiovascular system, central nervous system, endocrine system, metabolism, and immune system. In our previous review dealing with the efficacy of ginseng, we concluded that while studies with animals show that ginseng, or its active components, may prolong survival to physical or chemical stress, there is generally a lack of controlled research demonstrating the ability of ginseng to improve or prolong performance in fatigued humans. In this review, we extend our earlier analysis on the potential efficacy of ginseng use in the enhancement of physical performance and modification of fatigue states. Our analysis reveals that published literature appearing since our earlier review has not resolved the equivocal nature of research evidence involving animals or humans. Also, the lack of unanimity in this research can be explained on the basis of various methodological problems such as inadequate sample size and lack of double-blind, control and placebo paradigms. In addition, the absence of acceptable approaches to the problem of ‘sourcing’, in concert with an absence of compliance data in human research, further complicates the interpretation of this research literature. Nevertheless, the use of ginseng continues to grow, and current sales are estimated to be over $US300 million annually. There is clearly a need for systematic research dealing with the efficacy of ginseng, and this research needs to take into account basic, fundamental design considerations if there is to be any hope of establishing whether or not ginseng possesses efficacy.

In an attempt to identify athletes at risk of training-induced distress, a scale was developed using items from the Profile of Mood States (POMS). POMS data were collected monthly from 170 varsity college swimmers (70 female, 100 male) during four competitive training seasons. The team coaches identified swimmers who showed signs of compromised performance in response to intensive training (i.e., distress), and several series of discriminant function analyses were conducted in attempts to identify these individuals using POMS scale items. Discriminant function equations derived from subsets of items from the entire POMS items pool resulted in a mean prediction rate for identifying distressed swimmers of 93.9% for men and 100% for women. Seven POMS items which entered the equations most frequently served as predictor variables for analyses of a sample of 33 men swimmers. Predictions of distress were conducted at each monthly assessment. The prediction rate of distress achieved with the 7-item set of POMS items averaged 69.1%, and this level of accuracy was 37.0% above the chance rate of prediction (p < 0.05). In a cross-validation on 29 collegiate track and field athletes, the prediction rate of the 7-item scale was 66.7% (p < 0.05). It is concluded that the scale developed in this investigation was effective in identifying swimmers and other endurance athletes who exhibit signs of distress resulting from intensive training.

The effect of imagery perspectives, i.e. internal imagery vs. external imagery, on the psychophysiological responses to imagined exercise was investigated in the present study. Thirty male and female college students were randomly assigned to perform either internal imagery, external imagery or simple rest in addition to actual exercise. Metabolic, cardiovascular and perceptual responses were recorded before, during and after imagined exercise, actual exercise and rest. The results indicated that internal imagery resulted in a significant increase in ventilation and this response differed from the control condition. Effort sense was higher with internal imagery compared with external imagery. However, both internal and external imagery produced significant elevations in systolic blood pressure (SBP) from pre-to post-imagery, and these values were identical to those observed with actual exercise. Therefore, some responses to imagery were like those seen during actual exercise. Oxygen consumption (V˙O2), respiratory rate (RR), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), heart rate (HR) and diastolic blood pressure (DBP) were similar between internal and external imagery. It is concluded that the psychophysiological responses to internal imagery resemble actual exercise more than external imagery.

Mood state (POMS) and self-motivation (SMI) were assessed in 84 women vying for a position on a collegiate freshman rowing team. Forty-four of these rowers also completed a standardized rowing ergometer task. Mood state was assessed three additional times during the season with 22 rowers who adhered to training throughout the entire season. No differences (P greater than 0.05) in baseline mood state were observed between the dropouts (N = 62) and those who adhered to the training (N = 22). However, the dropouts possessed significantly lower self-motivation (P less than 0.05) and took longer to complete the rowing task than did the adherers (P less than 0.05). Near the end of the season, rowers were chosen by the coaching staff to compete in regional competition (i.e., successful adherers). Initial self-motivation and ergometer performance did not differ significantly (P greater than 0.05) between the successful and unsuccessful adherers. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed that global mood disturbance (P less than 0.05) increased during the training season in both groups. At the end of the training season, the unsuccessful adherers still possessed significantly (P less than 0.05) elevated mood disturbance, whereas the mood of the successful group had returned to baseline. It is concluded that female rowers who adhere to a season of competitive training have higher self-motivation and superior ergometer performances at the outset than do the eventual dropouts.

Eighteen female and 22 male college swimmers completed a paced 182.9 m swim before and after a 72 h period of increased training. Training volume was increased from 6,800 to 11,200 m.d-1 for the females and from 8,800 to 12,950 m.d-1 for the males. Salivary cortisol, heart rate, stroke mechanics, as well as overall and local ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) were measured in conjunction with the two swim tests. Mood states, as measured by the Profile of Mood States, and ratings of perceived muscle soreness were assessed daily. Significant (P less than 0.005) elevations in stroke frequency, overall and local RPE, fatigue, overall mood, and muscle soreness levels occurred in association with the increased training. Significant (P less than 0.005) reductions in vigor and stroke length were also observed as a consequence of the greater training load. The main effects for gender and the gender by trial interactions were not significant for each variable tested. It was concluded that: 1) affective, biomechanical, and perceptual variables are sensitive to a 3 d increase in the volume of swim training, 2) heart rate and cortisol levels are not influenced by the type of increased training employed in this study, and 3) female and male college swimmers do not differ in their psychological or physiological responses to a rapid increase in training volume.

For centuries, Man has had strong opinions about the importance of exercise in the maintenance of physical and mental health. Unfortunately, very little systematic study has been conducted to determine whether there is a relationship between exercise and mental health and, if a positive relationship exists, what specific factors under the broader rubric of “exercise” are responsible for its effectiveness in the maintenance and restoration of health.

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the efficacy of a dissociative cognitive strategy in facilitation of endurance performance. A pilot study of endurance performance was conducted in which 15 subjects ran to exhaustion on a motor-driven treadmill at 80% of maximal aerobic power (MAP). These subjects were randomly assigned to a cognitive strategy (dissociation), placebo, or control group and retested. The group employing the cognitive strategy was superior (+19%) to the control and placebo groups. In the second experiment control (N = 13) and dissociation (N = 14) groups were tested at 80% of MAP under baseline conditions, and again at the same metabolic demand with the exception that subjects in the experimental group employed the dissociative cognitive strategy used in the pilot study. The two groups were found to be remarkably similar on all physiological measures, but the dissociation group experienced a significant performance gain. The exercise metabolite, blood lactate, was similar in the two groups, and plasma catecholamine levels were higher in the dissociation group. This implies that distraction of sensory discomfort enabled subjects in the dissociation group to tolerate a greater amount of discomfort for a longer period of time. These findings suggest that a cognitive strategy based upon dissociation of sensory input can facilitate endurance performance on tasks of the type employed in the current investigation.

It is widely agreed that overtraining should be employed in order to achieve peak performance but it is also recognised that overtraining can actually produce decrements in performance. The challenge appears to be one of monitoring stress indicators in the athlete in order to titrate the training stimulus and prevent the onset of staleness. The present paper summarises a ten-year research effort in which the mood states of competitive swimmers have been monitored at intervals ranging from 2-4 weeks during individual seasons for the period 1975-1986. The training cycle has always involved the indoor season which extends from September to March and the athletes who served as subjects were 200 female and 200 male competitive swimmers. The results indicate that mood state disturbances increased in a dose-response manner as the training stimulus increased and that these mood disturbances fell to baseline levels with reduction of the training load. Whilst these results have been obtained in a realistic setting devoid of experimental manipulation, it is apparent that monitoring of mood state provides a potential method of preventing staleness.

The purpose of this study was to compare the rating of perceived exertion (PRE) and heart rate (HR) in two groups of 60 military personnel who differed in their level of fitness as determined by maximal oxygen uptake (VO2 max). At an initial testing period (T1), Group I represented a sample of personnel not participating in a training program while Group II had engaged in an endurance program (2--4 mile run/day) for 5 months. Six months later (T2), Groups I and II were retested after having participated in the program for 6 and 11 months, respectively. RPE and HR were measured at the end of each min of a 6 min run at an absolute workload of 6 mph, 0% grade on the treadmill. At T1, Group II had a significantly lower HR at each min of work but no difference existed in RPE between groups at any time during the run. At T2, both groups showed a significant decrease in HR and RPE during each min when compared lobgitudinally. The data suggest that the perception of the intensity of absolute work does not differ in groups differing in their level of fitness when studied cross-sectionally. However, significant reductions in perceived exertion occur following physical training.

The purpose of this investigation was to examine the interaction between anxiety and physical work capacity (PWC). Thirty college-age females completed the Spielberger State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and their physical work capacity was assessed by either a bicycle ergometer or treadmill test across 3 days within 1 week. The subjects in the ergometer group pedalled at 60 rpms and 25 watts for 4 minutes with increases of 25 watts each 4 minutes thereafter. The standard Balke treadmill test was employed for the treadmill group. PWC was evaluated by time in seconds to criterion heart rates of 150 and 170 beats per minute, as well as self-determined exhaustion (PWC150, PWC170, and the PWCmax). Analysis of variance revealed no significant difference in PWC or state anxiety across days, and PWC was not correlated with state or trait anxiety under any of the conditions. Also, the self-report anxiety data were in agreement with heart rate and blood pressure responses. It is concluded that a single test is ...

A series of psychological concepts are developed in this paper for use by coaches, trainers, physical educators, and physicians in the field of sports medicine. The concepts which are advanced deal with (1) the psychological characteristics of selected athletic sport groups, (2) the psychological characterization of successful and less-successful athletes, (3) tension states and the necessity to handle athletes on a personalized basis, (4) the role of mental health in sport, and (5) the importance of looking beyond conscious verbalizations in attempting to understand the athlete's behavior. These concepts have been specified and elaborated upon, implications delineated, and conclusions presented.

Current regulations governing the certification of respiratory protective devices are based on data published in the early 1950s. The limited data base of this early work and documented increases in the average height of the population underscore the need for additional information concerning the parameters of certification. In the present study, a protocol using an inclined treadmill (0.5% grade every 12 sec) was used to test a heterogeneous population (n = 38). Through submaximal up to and including maximal exercise levels with and without respirator wear, maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max) was significantly greater (p less than 0.01) with the respirator (44.11 +/- 1.3 mL/kg.min) than without the respirator (42.18 +/- 1.4 mL/kg.min) while maximal ventilation volumes (VEmax) were not significantly different (with = 118.7 +/- 4 L/min; without 119.6 +/- 5 L/min). While peak inspired flows (PFI) with the respirator (268 +/- 7 L/min) were less than without the respirator (281 +/- 9 L/min), p greater than 0.05, the lower peak expired flow (PFE) with the respirator (289 +/- 12 L/min) than without the respirator (324 +/- 13 L/min), p less than 0.01, indicated a significant blunting effect of the respiratory flows by the expired resistance during exercise to maximal levels. Peak inspired pressures (PPi) with and without the respirator were not significantly different (p greater than 0.05). The negative values obtained within the facepiece of the respirator (-7.65 +/- 0.8 cmH2O), however, indicate that the positive pressure within the facepiece was lost, and respiratory protection may be compromised. Peak expired pressure with the respirator (13.05 +/- 0.7 cmH2O) was significantly greater than without the respirator (10.7 +/- 0.5 cmH2O) indicating that, despite a lower PFE, greater force was required to overcome the resistances of the respirator on expiration. The dyspnea index, an index of physiological effort; suggests that the subjects were working at a higher percentage of their respiratory reserve with the respirator (p less than 0.05) than without. Perceptually, subjects also felt that breathing with the respirator was more difficult (p less than 0.05). The maximum heart rate and the ratings of perceived exertion were not significantly different between the two tests at maximal exercise levels. Maximum oxygen uptake was considered reached when subjects attained a respiratory exchange ratio of at least 1.15, when a heart rate response at or greater than age-predicted maximum was achieved, when ratings of perceived exertion indicated exhaustion, and/or when the measure of VO2 had plateaued during the final minute of exercise.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

The purpose of the investigation was to evaluate the effectiveness of trait anxiety in predicting respiratory distress resulting from heavy physical work performed while wearing an industrial respirator. Spielberger's trait anxiety scale was administered to 45 male volunteers in order to identify individuals with elevated trait anxiety. This testing was followed by a pulmonary function test, resting 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG), and an exercise ECG. Individuals with cardiovascular and/or pulmonary impairment did not continue with subsequent tests. The subjects next completed three treadmill tasks varying in intensity from 35% to 80% of max, and each trial lasted for 10 minutes. Twenty-five of these individuals performed the exercise tasks while wearing a self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) in the demand mode, whereas the remaining 20 subjects used a pressure-demand SCBA. The reason for terminating exercise was classified as respiratory or non-respiratory on the basis of self-report responses on a...

The purpose of this investigation was to compare the influence of acute physical activity and meditation (“noncultic”)on state anxiety. Seventy-five adult male volunteers served as Ss with 25 Ss randomly assigned to either an exercise, meditation, or control group. Physical activity was performed at 70% of self-imposed maximal exercise heart rate for 20 minutes by Ss in the exercise group; Ss assigned to the meditation group practiced Benson's Relaxation Response for 20 minutes; and Ss in the control group simply rested quietly in a “Lazyboy” chair for 20 minutes. State anxiety was measured with the Spielberger Scale, and it was assessed (1)prior to, (2)immediately following, and (3)10 minutes following each treatment. Oxygen consumption, heart rate, skin temperature, and blood pressure were also measured as confirmatory variables under selected conditions. The data were analyzed by means of a two-way repeated measures ANOVA, and this analysis revealed that a significant reduction in anxiety occurred for each treatment. This held for both those Ss falling within the normal range for state anxiety and those Ss regarded as high-anxious. It was also noted that none of the physiological variables differed significantly following the control and meditation treatments. The present evidence suggests that acute physical activity, noncultic meditation, and a quiet rest session are equally effective in reducing state anxiety.

A hard-core exercise addict 'can't live' without daily running, manifests withdrawal symptoms if deprived of exercise, and runs even when his physician says he shouldn't.

Mood, as measured by the Profile of Mood States questionnaire, and resting salivary cortisol levels were examined in 14 female college swimmers during progressive increases and decreases in training volume, and were compared to the same measures in eight active college women who served as controls. Training volume increased from 2,000 yards/day in September (baseline) to a peak of 12,000 yards/day in January (overtraining), followed by a reduction in training (taper) to 4,500 yards/day by February. The swimmers experienced significant (p less than 0.01) alterations in tension, depression, anger, vigor, fatigue and global mood across the training season compared to the controls. Salivary cortisol was significantly (p less than 0.01) greater in the swimmers compared to the controls during baseline and overtraining, but was not different between the groups following the taper. Salivary cortisol was significantly correlated with depressed mood during overtraining (r = .50; p less than 0.05) but not at baseline or taper. Global mood, depression, and salivary cortisol were significantly (p less than 0.05) higher during the overtraining phase in those swimmers classified as stale, compared to those swimmers who did not exhibit large performance decrements.

Selected physiological and psychomotor variables of depressed and nondepressed psychiatric patients were investigated. A comparison of the fractionated MMPI D Scale and Zung's Self-Rating Depression Scale (SDS) was also made. A further subsidiary problem studied was the role of alcoholism in depression as it contributed to selected physiological and psychomotor variables. Participants in this study consisted of 69 male psychiatric patients between the ages of 20 and 50 years. All patients were tested within 48 hours after admission to the Toledo State Hospital and prior to the administration of medication. Previous research indicating that motor dysfunction was closely related to the degree of psychopathology was generally not substantiated by this investigation. It was concluded that the patient's verbalization of physiological and psychomotor retardation appeared to mirror his affective state rather than his physical competence. The SDS appeared to be the most efficacious method of assessing qu...

The purpose of this investigation was to evaluate the influence of various hypnotic suggestions on perceptual and metabolic responses to a standard bicycle ergometer task. 5 Ss exercised for 5 minutes on a bicycle ergometer at a work load of 600 kpm and 50 rpm. However, each S was told that he would exercise at a light, a moderate, and a heavy work load under hypnotic conditions A, B, and C, respectively. Condition D (waking control) involved the same suggestions administered in condition B. The dependent variables were: perceived exertion, heart rate, oxygen uptake, oxygen debt, respiratory exchange ratio, excess carbon dioxide production, ventilatory minute-volume, ventilatory efficiency, and rectal temperature. These physiological assessments were made throughout the induction, explanation of work, exercise bout, and recovery period. The perceived exertion rating was made in the waking state following this 40-minute session. Analyses of variance for multifactor experiments with repeated measur...

(1969). A Pilot Investigation of Physical Working Capacity in Depressed and Nondepressed Psychiatric Males. Research Quarterly. American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation: Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 859-861.

While antidepressant medications and electroconvulsive therapy have been shown to be effective treatments for severe depression, mild and moderate depressions seldom respond to medications and are usually managed by a variety of psychotherapies, all of which are equally and minimally beneficial. Clinical experience suggested that physical activity might be helpful in treating moderate depression. After reviewing the available literature (analogue studies suggested a negative correlation between exercise and depression), we conducted a clinical study comparing a 10 week course of thrice weekly walking-jogging-running with 10 weeks of two different psychotherapies. Patients with moderate (“neurotic-reactive”) depression were randomly assigned to the three treatments. Walking-jogging-running was at least as effective as either psychotherapy and cost a quarter as much to adminster. Follow-up shows continued freedom from depression in runners, most of whom have continued the treatment on their own. Possible mechanisms of reaction will be discussed.

Twelve male swimmers were studied psychologically before, during, and after 10 d of increased training. Daily training distance was increased from 4,000 to 9,000 m.d-1, and intensity was maintained at 94% of VO2max. Three of the swimmers were unable to tolerate the increased training load, and they did the same distance at slower speeds. Swimmers completed the Profile of Mood States, a muscle soreness scale, and a 24-h history each morning prior to the first of two daily training sessions. Changes across days were evaluated statistically with a one-way repeated measures ANOVA. Significant (P less than 0.005) increases occurred in the ratings of exercise intensity, muscle soreness, depression, anger, fatigue, and global mood disturbance, along with a reduction in general sense of well-being. Swimmers were classified as "responders" or "non-responders" on the basis of distress patterns using separate physiological and psychological criteria, and these classifications were performed in a double-blind setting. Close agreement (89%) was achieved between the psychometric and physiological judgments, and the physiological results appear in related papers. It is concluded that significant psychometric changes occur with an intense 10-d training regimen, and these alterations resemble those observed in swimmers exposed to increased training across several months. These findings underscore the potential utility of monitoring mood states in the prevention of staleness.

While antidepressant medications and electroconvulsive therapy have been shown to be effective treatments for severe depression, mild and moderate depressions seldom respond to medications and are usually managed by a variety of psychotherapies, all of which are equally and minimally beneficial. Clinical experience suggested that physical activity might be helpful in treating moderate depression. After reviewing the available literature (analogue studies suggested a negative correlation between exercise and depression), we conducted a clinical study comparing a 10 week course of thrice weekly walking–jogging–running with 10 weeks of two different psychotherapies. Patients with moderate (“neurotic-reactive”) depression were randomly assigned to the three treatments. Walking-jogging–running was at least as effective as either psychotherapy and cost a quarter as much to adminster. Follow–up shows continued freedom from depression in runners, most of whom have continued the treatment on their own. Possible mechanisms of reaction will be discussed.

Five adult males cycled an electrically braked ergometer at a resistance of 100 watts for 20 minutes on four occasions. The treatments were counterbalanced and consisted of exercise in the control waking and hypnotic states, and the waking and hypnotic states with suggestions of heavy work. The dependent measures were perceived exertion, heart rate, V·O2, V·CO2, and VBTPS. A significant (p

This article has dealt with the psychophysiological phenomenon known as "hyperventilation syndrome." Published research on this syndrome dates back at least a century to Da Costa's classic investigation involving "soldier's heart". Various labels such as "effort syndrome," "anxiety neurosis," "neurocirculatory asthenia," "vasoregulatory asthenia," and "irritable heart," have been employed over the past century to describe this syndrome. The use of different labels to describe this syndrome seems to be inappropriate. While the symptoms associated with these diagnostic labels appear to be remarkably similar, the treatment for the syndrome often differs as a function of the diagnostic label. Symptoms include breathlessness or dyspnea with effort, parathesia, trembling, tachycardia, tetany, carpopedal spasms, and convulsions in the case of a full-blown attack. Hyperventilation, a normal consequence of vigorous exercise and/or high temperatures, can often occur in some individuals for no apparent reason. Hyperventilation, and the resulting physiological changes, are often associated with decrements in psychomotor performance along with increased error rates. The symptoms which characterize the hyperventilation syndrome can be readily produced in certain "types" of individuals within minutes by requiring the individual to overbreathe or through introduction of a CO2 challenge. The symptoms, once produced, can be quickly reversed by placing a paper sack over the subject's head and requiring him/her to rebreathe expired air. Overbreathing and CO2 challenges do not, however, produce full-blown hyperventilatory attacks in most individuals. That is, some individuals or "types" appear to be especially sensitive to the effects of overbreathing and/or CO2 loading.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

The purpose of this investigation was to describe the time course of changes in physiological and perceptual variables during exhaustive endurance work with and without an air-supplied, full-facepiece, pressure-demand respirator. Thirty-eight healthy subjects (24 to 51 years of age) volunteered for this study. Treadmill speed was set at 5.5 kph (3.4 mph) and elevation was set at a level calculated to elicit 70% of a previously determined maximal aerobic capacity (VO2max). Subjects continued at this rate to exhaustion. Despite a constant work rate, VO2 and %VO2max increased during exercise and were significantly greater with the respirator (34.4 +/- 1.1 mL/kg.min; 84% VO2max) than without the respirator (31.9 +/- 1.1 mL/kg.min; 76% VO2max) at the "final" measurement point prior to termination of exercise by each subject. The final values for ventilation volume (VE) also were significantly greater with the respirator (89.2 +/- 3.4 L/min) than without (73.4 +/- 3.7 L/min). At the conclusion of the endurance walk, dyspnea index (VE/MMV.25) remained well below maximal values (with = 58.6 +/- 2%; without = 44.6 +/- 2%; p less than 0.001). Also, at the final period, no significant differences occurred in the subjects' perceptual ratings of work of breathing, yet work performance time was significantly reduced (p less than 0.0001) from 69.1 +/- 4.4 min (without) to 55.6 +/- 3.8 min (with). A significantly greater swing in peak pressure (maximum pressure measured within the facepiece of respirator), however, from inspired (PPi) to expired (PPe) occurred with the respirator (13.42 cmH2O) than without the respirator (9.25 cmH2O).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

A series of investigations was performed in which Ss rested quietly for 40-min and performed aerobic exercise on separate occasions. Blood pressure (BP) and state anxiety were assessed prior to and following the conditions. In the first experiment, 15 normotensive Ss were assessed during the 3-h following the treatments. The results revealed that state anxiety and BP were reduced following both conditions. The exercise-induced BP reductions remained significant for 2 to 3 h (P less than 0.05), whereas the BP reductions returned to baseline within 20-min following cessation of quiet rest. The second experiment involved an evaluation of the effects of exercise and quiet rest on 15 pharmacologically controlled hypertensive Ss. A significant reduction in systolic BP (P less than 0.05) was observed following exercise and quiet rest. State anxiety was reduced following quiet rest and exercise (P less than 0.05). It is concluded that exercise and quiet rest have similar effects on state anxiety, and both conditions are followed by a transitory reduction in blood pressure. These anti-anxiety effects, however, are sustained for a longer period following exercise.

It has been recognized for many years that factors of a psychogenic nature can influence resting as well as exercise metabolism, and the primary purpose of the present review was to summarize existing evidence dealing with this topic. The review is focused primarily upon experimental evidence involving the hypnotic manipulation of metabolism, since most of the relevant literature has relied upon utilization of the hypnotic tool. Several investigations involving non-hypnotic manipulations are directly related to the general research theme, and these reports are also included in the review. Following a general overview, research involving the influence of cognition and affect on heart rate, cardiac output, forearm blood flow, respiration rate, ventilatory minute volume, and oxygen consumption at rest is considered. The following section deals with the influence of cognition and affect, as well as perception on these same physiological parameters during exercise. It is concluded that psychogenic factors representing the cognitive, affective, and perceptual domains can significantly influence resting as well as exercise metabolism.