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Objective To study the frequency of neurological symptoms and complications in COVID-19 patients in a systematic review of the literature. Methods Relevant studies were identified through electronic explorations of PubMed, medRxiv, and bioRxiv. Besides, three Chinese databases were searched. A snowballing method searching the bibliographies of the retrieved references was applied to identify potentially relevant articles. Articles published within 1 year prior to April 20th, 2020, were screened with no language restriction imposed. Databases were searched for terms related to SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 and neurological manifestations, using a pre-established protocol registered on the International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews database (ID: CRD42020187994). Results A total of 2441 articles were screened for relevant content, of which 92 full-text publications were included in the analyses of neurological manifestations of COVID-19. Headache, dizziness, taste and smell dysfunctions, and impaired consciousness were the most frequently described neurological symptoms, the latter more often among patients with a severe or critical disease course. To date, only smaller cohort studies or single cases have reported cerebrovascular events, seizures, meningoencephalitis, and immune-mediated neurological diseases, not suitable for quantitative analysis. Conclusion The most frequent neurological symptoms reported in association with COVID-19 are non-specific for the infection with SARS-CoV-2. Although SARS-CoV-2 may have the potential to gain direct access to the nervous system, so far, SARS-CoV-2 was detected in the cerebrospinal fluid in two cases only. Standardized international registries are needed to clarify the clinical relevance of the neuropathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 and to elucidate a possible impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on common neurological disease, such as Alzheimer’s, Parkinson’s disease or multiple sclerosis.

Stroke induces disorder of gut microbiota, however, whether this disorder differs according to stroke severity and its role in the evolution and outcome of stroke is currently unknown. Here we explored the composition and structure of fecal microbiome based on 68 acute ischemic stroke patients presenting with minor symptoms (admission National Institute of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) ≤ 3) and 67 patients with non-minor stroke (admission NIHSS 4-34) using high-throughput Illumina sequencing of the 16S rRNA. There was no significant difference in α-diversity indices, but the principal coordinate analysis of the microbiota indicated clear separation of the two groups. The significantly enriched butyrate-producing genus Roseburia in the minor stroke group was negatively correlated with fasting glucose, while the Erysipelotrichaceae incertae sedis abundant in non-minor stroke patients was positively correlated with stress hyperglycemia (i.e. fasting glucose/glycated hemoglobin ratio). Moreover, the relative abundance of genus Roseburia was also significantly associated with the dynamic changes of NIHSS score, as well as short-term and long-term functional outcomes. Our results suggested that stroke affects microbiota composition in a manner differentiated by stroke severity, and the enrichment of genus Roseburia may play a protective role in stroke evolution and outcome. Our findings strengthen the relevance of specific taxa for stroke severity that might allow targeted therapy in acute ischemic stroke.

Background: Recently, a new resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (rs-fMRI) measure to evaluate the concordance between different rs-fMRI metrics has been proposed and has not been in...

Recently, the NIHSS STroke Scale score, Age, pre-stroke mRS score, onset-to-treatment Time (START nomogram) predicts 3-month functional outcome after intravenous thrombolysis in ischemic stroke patients. However, this model has not yet been an external validation. We aim to validate the performance of START nomogram.Data were derived from the stroke center of the Nanjing First Hospital (China). Patients who lacked the necessary data to calculate the nomogram and missed 3-month modified Ranking scale scores were excluded. Modified Rankin Scale score more than 2 at 3-month was assessed as an unfavorable outcome. We used areas under the receiver operator characteristic curves (AUC-ROC) to quantify the prognostic value. Calibration was assessed by calibration plots and Hosmer-Lemeshow (HL) goodness of fit test.The final cohort included 306 eligible patients. For 3-month unfavorable outcome, the AUC-ROC of the START nomogram was .766 (95%CI: .7013-.8304, P.0001), suggesting good discrimination in the START nomogram. It also showed good calibration (HL goodness of fit test P = .1261) in the external validation sample.The START nomogram with good predictive performance is a reliable and simple clinical instrument to predict unfavorable outcome after acute stroke.

The ratio of triglyceride (TG) to high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) is an objective approach to predicting poor outcomes in acute ischemic stroke (AIS). The impact of TG/HDL-C on hemorrhagic transformation (HT) after AIS remains unknown. The aim of this study was to explore the accurate effect of TG/HDL-C on HT after AIS. We enrolled a total of 1423 patients with AIS in the training cohort from a prospective, consecutive hospital-based stroke registry. Of the 1423 patients, HT occurred in 155 (10.89%) patients. The incidence of HT after AIS was significantly increased when there were low levels of TG (P=0.016) and TG/HDL-C (P=0.006) in patients with AIS attributable to large artery atherosclerosis (LAA), but not in those who suffered from cardioembolic stroke. After adjustment for covariates, a lower TG/HDL-C (OR=0.53, 95%CI=0.20-0.93) that was more than TG alone (OR=0.61, 95%CI=0.27-0.98) independently increased the risk of HT in LAA. Furthermore, our established nomogram indicated that lower TG/HDL-C was an indicator of HT. These findings were further validated in the test cohort of 558 patients with AIS attributable to LAA. In summary, a low level of TG/HDL-C is correlated with greater risk of HT after AIS attributable to LAA.

Background: Accurate prognostication of unfavorable outcome made at the early onset of stroke is important to both the clinician and the patient management. This study was aimed to develop a nomogram based on the integration of parameters to predict the probability of 3-month unfavorable functional outcome in Chinese acute ischemic stroke patients. Methods: We retrospectively collected patients who underwent acute ischemic stroke at Stroke Center of the Nanjing First Hospital (China) between May 2013 and May 2018. After exclusion, the study population includes 1,025 patients for nomogram development. The main outcome measure was 3-month unfavorable outcome (modified Rankin Scale > 2). Multivariable logistic regression analysis was used to develop the predicting model, and stepwise logistic regression with the Akaike information criterion was utilized to find best-fit nomogram model. We incorporated the creatinine, fast blood glucose, age, previous cerebral hemorrhage, previous valvular heart disease, and NHISS score (COACHS), and these factors were presented with a nomogram. We assessed the discriminative performance by using the area under curve (AUC) of receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) and calibration of risk prediction model by using the Hosmer-Lemeshow test. Results: Multivariate analysis of the 1,025 patients for logistic regression helped identify the independent factors as National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale score on admission, age, previous valvular heart disease, fasting blood glucose, creatinine, and previous cerebral hemorrhage, which were included in the COACHS nomogram. The AUC-ROC of nomogram was 0.799. Calibration was good (p = 0.1376 for the Hosmer-Lemeshow test). Conclusions: The COACHS nomogram may be used to predict unfavorable outcome at 3 months after acute ischemic stroke in Chinese population. It may be also a reliable tool that is effective in its clinical utilization to risk-stratify acute stroke patients.

Background We aimed to assess the safety and efficacy of endovascular treatment (EVT) in patients with anterior circulation emergent large vessel occlusion (ELVO) beyond 6 h from symptom onset in a real-world cohort of patients in China. Methods We retrospectively examined 305 patients with anterior circulation ELVO treated with EVT. Patients were divided into two groups: treated with known onset within 6 h (n = 238) and beyond 6 h (n = 67). Multivariable logistic regression and ordinal shift analyses were used to evaluate the associations between onset-to-groin puncture time and safety and efficacy outcomes. Results Treatment beyond 6 h was not associated with symptomatic intracranial hemorrhage within 48 h (sICH; odds ratio [OR] 2.03, 95% confidence interval [CI] 0.48–8.57, p = 0.334), in-hospital mortality (OR 1.95, 95% CI 0.48–7.91, p = 0.348), successful recanalization (modified Thrombolysis in Cerebral Infarction score 2b or 3; OR 0.73, 95% CI 0.31–1.73, p = 0.470), favorable functional outcome (modified Rankin Scale score 0–2; OR 0.55, 95% CI 0.25–1.23, p = 0.145), and functional improvement (modified Rankin Scale shift by 1-point decrease; common OR 0.80, 95%CI 0.45–1.42, p = 0.450) at 3 months compared with treatment within 6 h. Futher interaction analysis showed that stroke etiology did not modify the associations between onset-to-groin puncture time and outcomes (p > 0.05). Conclusions In this real-world study, after careful assessment, EVT beyond 6 h from known stroke onset was safe, effective and had comparable short-term outcomes to EVT within 6 h.

Stroke-associated infection (SAI) is a major medical complication in acute ischemic stroke patients (AIS) treated with endovascular therapy (EVT). Three hundred thirty-three consecutive patients with AIS caused by a large vessel occlusion in the anterior circulation who received EVT (142 (42.6%) of them were given IV tPA as bridging therapy) and 337 AIS patients who received IV tPA only (non-EVT) were enrolled in the study and evaluated to determine the association of inflammatory factors on admission with SAI. Among the 333 AIS patients undergoing EVT, SAI occurred in 219 (65.8%) patients. Patients with SAI had higher baseline National Institutes of Health Stroke Scale (NIHSS) total scores, white blood cell (WBC) and neutrophil counts, neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR), and platelet-to-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) than those without SAI (P

A loading dose of antiplatelets reduces in-stent thrombosis after stent implantation. However, whether it is safe in patients undergoing acute stenting after intravenous recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) is unclear.A case series of acute ischemic stroke patients treated with intravenous rt-PA followed by emergent stenting were prospectively included in Jinling Hospital Stroke Unit. An emergent loading dose of antiplatelets (aspirin 300 mg and clopidogrel 300 mg) were administered to all patients through a nasogastric tube immediately before stenting. Clinical and angiographic outcomes were evaluated in these patients.A total of 12 patients were included. The median of NIHSS score on admission was 15 points (interquartile range 11-19). The median of time from stroke symptom onset to start IV rt-PA and stent placement was 172 min (interquartile range 123.75-189) and 311.5 min (interquartile range 285.5-349.5), respectively. All patients reached complete or partial recanalization (TICI ≥2a). One patient occurred hemorrhagic transformation at 24 h following the emergent loading dose of antiplatelets. A favorable outcome as defined by mRS ≤2 at 90 days was obtained in 58.3% (7/12) of all patients.Our finding preliminary suggested that an emergent loading dose of antiplatelets may be safe and feasible for acute stenting after IV rt-PA.

Background and Purpose: The clinical use of tirofiban for patients with acute ischemic stroke (AIS) who underwent mechanical thrombectomy (MT) remains controversial. We aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of tirofiban combined with MT in AIS patients. Methods: Patients with AIS who underwent MT from January 2014 to December 2018 were enrolled in three stroke units in China. Subgroup analyses were performed based on stroke etiology which was classified according to the Trial of ORG 10172 in Acute Stroke Treatment (TOAST) criteria. Safety outcomes were in-hospital intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH), symptomatic intracerebral hemorrhage (sICH) and mortality at 3-month. Efficacy outcomes were favorable functional outcome and functional independence at 3-month and neurological improvement at 24 h, 3 d and discharge. Results: In patients with large artery atherosclerosis (LAA) stroke, multivariate analyses revealed that tirofiban significantly decreased the odds of in-hospital ICH (adjusted OR = 0.382, 95% CI 0.180–0.809) and tended to increase the odds of favorable functional outcome at 3-month (adjusted OR = 3.050, 95% CI 0.969–9.598). By contrast, in patients with cardioembolism (CE) stroke, tirofiban was not associated with higher odds of favorable functional outcome at 3-month (adjusted OR = 0.719, 95% CI 0.107–4.807), but significantly decreased the odds of neurological improvement at 24 h and 3d (adjusted OR = 0.185, 95% CI 0.047–0.726; adjusted OR = 0.268, 95% CI 0.087–0.825). Conclusions: Tirofiban combined with MT appears to be safe and effective in LAA patients, but has no beneficial effect on CE patients.

Objectives The accuracy of cognitive screening tools to detect poststroke cognitive impairment (PSCI) was investigated using various neuropsychological definitions. Methods Hospital‐based stroke patients underwent a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment. The rate of PSCI was estimated using thresholds of 1, 1.5, or 2 standard deviations below the normal control and memory impairment defined by a single or multiple tests. Meanwhile, the diagnostic accuracy of cognitive screening through face‐to‐face assessment using the Mini‐Mental State Examination (MMSE) and the Montreal Cognitive Assessment Scale (MoCA), and telephone assessment using a 5‐minute NINDS‐Canadian Stroke Network (NINDS‐CSN) scale and a six‐item screener (SIS), was both tested under different definitions, with the optimal cutoff selected based on the highest Youden index. Results In stroke patients, the rate of PSCI ranged from 46.3% to 76.3% upon different definitions. The face‐to‐face MoCA was more consistent with the comprehensive cognitive assessment compared to MMSE. The optimal cutoff of PSCI was MMSE ≤ 27 and MoCA ≤ 19. For the telephone tests, the 5‐minute NINDS‐CSN assessment was more reliable, and the optimal cutoff was ≤23, while for SIS ≤ 4. Conclusions Cognitive screening tools including the face‐to‐face MMSE and MoCA, together with the telephone assessment of NINDS‐CSN 5‐minute protocol and SIS, were simple and effective for detecting PSCI in stroke patients. The corresponding threshold values for PSCI were 27 points, 19 points, 23 points, and 4 points., The rate of cognitive impairment varied as neuropsychological definitions differed. Cognitive screening cutoffs for MMSE, MoCA, NINDS‐CSN 5‐minute protocol, and SIS were 27, 19, 23, and 4.

Background Early prediction of unfavorable outcome after ischemic stroke is of great significance to the clinical and therapeutic management. A nomogram is a better visual tool than earlier models and prognostic scores to predict clinical outcomes, which incorporates different factors to develop a graphic continuous scoring system and calculates accurately the risk probability of poor outcome entirely based on individual characteristics. However, to date, no nomogram models have been found to predict the probability of 6-month poor outcome after ischemic stroke. We aimed to develop and validate a nomogram for individualized prediction of the probability of 6-month unfavorable outcome in Chinese patients with ischemic stroke. Methods Based on the retrospective stroke registry, a single-center study which included 499 patients from May, 2013 to May, 2018 was conducted in Nanjing First Hospital (China) for ischemic stroke within 12 h of symptoms onset. The main outcome measure was 6-month unfavorable outcome (mRS > 2). To generate the nomogram, NIHSS score on admission, Age, previous Diabetes mellitus and crEatinine (NADE) were integrated into the model. We assessed the discriminative performance by using the area under the curve (AUC) of receiver-operating characteristic (ROC) and calibration of risk prediction model by using the Hosmer–Lemeshow test. Results A visual NADE nomogram was constructed that NIHSS score on admission (OR: 1.190, 95%CI: 1.125–1.258), age (OR: 1.068, 95%CI: 1.045–1.090), previous diabetes mellitus (OR: 1.995, 95%CI: 1.236–3.221) and creatinine (OR: 1.010, 95%CI: 1.002–1.018) were found to be significant predictors of 6-month unfavorable outcome after acute ischemic stroke in Chinese patients. The AUC–ROC of nomogram was 0.791. Calibration was good (p = 0.4982 for the Hosmer–Lemeshow test). Conclusion The NADE is the first nomogram developed and validated in Chinese ischemic stroke patients to provide an individual, visual and precise prediction of the risk probability of 6-month unfavorable outcome.

Background Fractional flow reserve (FFR)-guided revascularization strategy is popular in coronary intervention. However, the feasibility of assessing stenotic severity in intracranial large arteries using pressure gradient measurements still remains unclear. Methods Between March 2013 and May 2014, 12 consecutive patients with intracranial large artery stenosis (including intracranial internal carotid artery, middle cerebral M1 segment, intracranial vertebral artery, and basilar artery) were enrolled in this study. The trans-stenotic pressure gradient was measured before and/or after percutaneous transluminal angioplasty and stenting (PTAS), and was then compared with percent diameter stenosis. A Pd/Pa cut-off of ≤0.70 was used to guide stenting of hemodynamically significant stenoses. The device-related and procedure-related serious adverse events and recurrent cerebral ischemic events were recorded. Results The target vessel could be reached in all cases. No technical complications occurred due to the specific study protocol. Excellent pressure signals were obtained in all patients. For seven patients who performed PTAS, the mean pre-procedural pressure gradient decreased from 59.0 ± 17.2 to 13.3 ± 13.6 mm Hg after the procedure (P

Objective: To investigate whether dual tissue-defined ischemic attacks, defined as multiple diffusion-weighted imaging lesions of different age and/or arterial territory (dual DWI), are an independent and stronger predictor of 90-day stroke than dual clinical TIAs (dual TIA). Methods: Consecutive patients with clinically defined TIA were enrolled and assessed clinically and by MRI within 3 days. The predictive ability of the ABCD clinical factors, dual TIA, and dual DWI was evaluated by means of multivariate logistic regression. Results: Among 658 patients who were included in the study and completed 90 days of follow-up, a total of 70 patients (10.6%) experienced subsequent stroke by 90 days. Multivariate logistic regression indicated that dual DWI was an independent predictor for subsequent stroke (odds ratio 4.64, 95% confidence interval 2.15–10.01), while dual TIA was not (odds ratio 1.18, 95% confidence interval 0.69–2.01). C statistics was higher when the item of dual TIA in ABCD3-I score was replaced by dual DWI (0.759 vs 0.729, p = 0.035). The net reclassification value for 90-day stroke risk was also improved (continuous net reclassification improvement 0.301, p = 0.017). Conclusion: Dual DWI independently predicted future stroke in patients with TIA. A new ABCD3-I score with dual DWI instead of dual clinical TIA may improve risk stratification for early stroke risk after TIA.

To evaluate the effect of carotid angioplasty and stenting (CAS) on postoperative cerebrovascular reactivity (CVR) and its independent predictors.During July 2008 and September 2009, 37 patients undergone CAS were enrolled in this study. Breath holding tests using transcranial Doppler were performed for each patient before, 1 to 2 days, and 3 to 10 months after the procedure. CVR was evaluated by the breath holding index (BHI). Repeated measures analysis of variance was employed to detect the BHI changes after CAS. Multivariate linear regression was used to identify the independent predictors for BHI.A significant improvement of the ipsilateral BHI values was observed after stenting (P0.05). The follow-up BHI values were positively correlated with those after procedures (β = 1.030, P0.001), while negatively correlated with tandem stenoses (β = -0.016, P = 0.002).CAS results in an immediate improvement and a gradual normalization of the ipsilateral CVR. Tandem stenoses are an independent predictor for CVR.

Although several risk factors for prolonged length of stay (LOS) and increased hospital cost have been identified, the association between LOS, hospital cost, and neutrophil-to-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) has not yet been investigated. We aimed to investigate the influence of NLR on LOS and hospital cost in patients with acute ischemic stroke.Patients with acute ischemic stroke diagnosed within 24 hours of symptom onset were included. Univariate analysis and stepwise multiple regression analysis were used to identify independent predictors of LOS and hospital cost.A total of 346 patients were included in the final analysis. The median LOS was 11 days (range 8-13 days). The median acute hospital cost per patient was 19,030.6 RMB (U.S. $ 3065.8) (range 14,450.8 RMB-25,218.2 RMB). Neutrophil count to lymphocyte count (NLR) (P .001), diabetes mellitus (P = .034), stroke subtype (P = .005), and initial stroke severity (P .001) were significantly associated with prolonged LOS in the univariate analysis. NLR (P .001), smoking (P = .04), stroke subtype (P .001), initial stroke severity (P .001), and LOS (P .001) were significantly associated with increased hospital cost in the univariate analysis. Multivariate regression analysis showed that NLR was an independent predictor of both LOS and acute hospital cost. In addition, high NLR was significantly correlated with poor outcome at discharge, prolonged LOS, and increased hospital cost.NLR is significantly associated with LOS and acute hospital cost in patients presenting with acute ischemic stroke. It is a simple, inexpensive, and readily available biomarker and may serve as a clinically practical indicator for assessing the economic burden of stroke.

Background:Valid telephone assessment for cognitive impairment is lacking in stroke settings. We investigated the feasibility and validity of the 5-minute National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke and Canadian Stroke Network (NINDS-CSN) protocol and six-item screener (SIS) in stroke patients by telephone administration.Methods:Patients were assessed with a comprehensive face-to-face neuropsychological assessment after three months of stroke onset, followed by the 5-minute NINDS-CSN protocol (30 points) and SIS (6 points) at least one month later. Administration time was recorded for the telephone tests. Validity of both tests was determined using the area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC).Results:Eighty-nine patients (age, 62.9 ± 8.6 years; male, 65.2%) received a face-to-face assessment and 80 completed telephone tests. The time required to administer the 5-minute NINDS-CSN protocol was 4.3 ± 1.0 minutes, and SIS 57.3 ± 17.7 seconds. Validity of detecting cognitive impairment as assessed by AUC was 0.86 (95% CI, 0.78–0.94) for 5-minute NINDS-CSN protocol, and 0.74 (95% CI, 0.63–0.85) for SIS. Sensitivity and specificity were optimal with the cut-off values of 23.5/24 for the 5-minute NINDS-CSN protocol, and 4/5 for SIS.Conclusions:Both the telephone-based 5-minute NINDS-CSN protocol and SIS were feasible and valid in screening cognitive impairment after stroke in China.

Background The NINDS-Canadian Stroke Network (NINDS-CSN) recommended a neuropsychological battery of three protocols to diagnose vascular cognitive impairment (VCI), however, due to culture and language differences, the battery cannot be directly used in China. Validation of the battery in mandarin Chinese is lacking. Our study investigated the reliability and validity of the adapted Chinese versions of the battery in stroke patients with high probability of VCI. Methods Fifty mild stroke patients (median of National Institute of Health Stroke Scale [NIHSS] score, 2) and 50 stroke-free normal controls were recruited. All subjects’ demographics, clinical history, and stroke severity were recorded. The NINDS-CSN neuropsychological protocols were adapted into the Chinese versions. External validity, defined as the ability of the protocol summary scores to differentiate stroke patients from controls, was determined using the area under the curve (AUC) of the receiver operating characteristics curve. We also evaluated internal consistency and intra-rater reliability. Results Stroke patients performed significantly poorer than controls on all three protocols (F statistics between 24.9 and 31.4, P

Both adiponectin and endothelial progenitor cells (EPCs) have been proposed recently with anti-atherosclerosis effects. However, their impacts on vascular outcomes in patients with large artery atherosclerosis (LAA) are unclear. This study aimed to investigate the relationship between adiponectin, EPCs and stroke with a case-control design.The study cohort included 127 patients (61.3 ± 11.0 years; 73.2% men) with LAA stroke and 58 control subjects (60.9 ± 9.2 years; 70.7% men) referred for adiponectin and EPCs levels testing. We collected demographic, clinical, angiographical features, and laboratory data. Influence of adiponectin and EPCs levels on cerebral atherosclerosis and LAA stroke was analyzed with regression models.The levels of adiponectin and EPCs in atherosclerotic stroke patients were significantly lower compared with matched controls (p0.05). Logistic regression analysis identified that reduced levels of adiponectin and EPCs were closely correlated with cerebral atherosclerosis and LAA stroke. The associations remained significant after adjustment for age, sex and other confounders. Additionally, partial correlation analysis revealed a significant positive association between adiponectin and three subpopulations of EPCs levels (CD34(+)CD133(+)CD309(+)cells: r = 0.510, p = 0.001; CD34(+) CD133(-)CD309(+)cells: r = 0.262, p = 0.004; CD34(-)CD133(+)CD309(+)cells: r = 0.348, p0.001).Adiponectin is positively correlated with EPCs levels, and both of them are independently associated with LAA stroke.

We read with interest the article by Lisabeth et al1 comparing stroke outcomes in Mexican Americans and non-Hispanic whites. In this study, ethnical differences of stroke outcomes in 461 Mexican Americans and 259 non-Hispanic white patients were compared using Tobit or linear regression model. This letter is devoted to challenging their statistical application of the …

Background Around two thirds stroke patients may suffer from vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). Our previous study has validated the NINDS-CSN harmonization standard for VCI diagnosis in Chinese. In this study, we aimed to investigate the predictors for VCI in Chinese post-stroke patients. Methods We compared epidemiological, clinical, and neuroimaging data (number, size and location of acute infarcts and lacunes, severities of white matter hyperintensities and brain atrophy) between stroke patients with and without VCI. Univariate and logistic regression analyses were utilized to determine VCI predictors. Results Fifty-six consecutive patients (age, 63.8 ± 8.3 years; female, 37.5 %) were recruited at a mean interval of 7.1 months after stroke onset, and 31 (55.4 %) patients were diagnosed with VCI based on a validated 60-min neuropsychological battery. VCI patients were older (p = 0.023), less educated (p = 0.001), more likely to be female (p