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Background Pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a key regulator of the induction of drug metabolizing enzymes. PXR has been studied for its importance in drug-drug or herb-drug interactions, and it is also a molecular target for the treatment of inflammatory and metabolic diseases. Purpose This study aims to determine new natural PXR-ligands from traditional plant medicines. Methods The PXR activation activity was measured by a mammalian one hybrid assay of PXR. Identification of the active compound from Alisma rhizome (the rhizomes of Alisma orientale) was carried out by bioassay-guided fractionation method. The transcriptional activity of the liver-enriched nuclear receptors was measured by the luciferase reporter assay. The interaction between the SRC-1 and PXR was measured by a mammalian 2-hybrid assay. The expression of endogenous CYP3A4 mRNA in both cultured hPXR-overexpressing hepatoma cells and human primary hepatocytes were measured by quantitative RT-PCR method. Results The extract of Alisma rhizome showed the most potent activation activity by screening of a library of medicinal plant extracts. Alisol B 23-acetate (ABA) was identified to be the active compound of Alisma rhizome. ABA caused a concentration-dependent increase on the PXR-dependent transactivation of a luciferase reporter gene, but did not affect the ligand binding activity of the liver-enriched nuclear receptors, such as CAR, LXR, FXR, PPARα, PPARδ and PPARγ, emphasizing that ABA is a potent and specific agonist of PXR. With ABA treatment, the direct interaction between the ligand-binding domain of PXR and the receptor interaction domain of SRC1 was observed. ABA also induced the expression of endogenous CYP3A4 mRNA in both cultured hPXR-overexpressing hepatoma cells and human primary hepatocytes. Conclusion Since the rhizomes of Alisma orientale are used for a wide range of ailments in traditional Chinese medicine and Japanese Kampo medicine, this study could possibly extend into the clinical usage of these medicines via the mechanism of PXR activation.

Androgens are key regulators that play a critical role in the male reproductive system and have anabolic effects on bone mineral density and skeletal muscle mass. We have previously reported that YK11 is a novel selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM) and induces myogenic differentiation and selective gene regulation. In this study, we show that treatment of YK11 and dihydrotestosterone (DHT) accelerated cell proliferation and mineralization in MC3T3-E1 mouse osteoblast cells. Further, YK11-treated cells increased osteoblast specific differentiation markers, such as osteoprotegerin and osteocalcin, compared to untreated cells. These observations were attenuated by androgen receptor (AR) antagonist treatment. To clarify the effect of YK11, we investigated rapid non-genomic signaling by AR. The phosphorylated Akt protein level was increased by YK11 and DHT treatment, suggesting that YK11 activates Akt-signaling via non-genomic signaling of AR. Because it is known Akt-signaling is a key regulator of androgen-mediated osteoblast differentiation, YK11 has osteogenic activity as well as androgen.

The basal transcriptional activity of unliganded human constitutive androstane receptor (hCAR) was shown to be repressed by the potent liver X receptor (LXR) agonist, TO901317, in a concentration-dependent manner using a reporter assay in cultured cells. TO901317 also repressed the basal transcriptional activity of both mouse and rat CAR. The certified hCAR agonist, CITCO, partially reversed this repressive effect of TO901317 on hCAR basal activity. Unlike hCAR, a three alanine insertion mutant and the splice variant 2 of hCAR require agonists, such as CITCO, to become transcriptionally active and the CITCO-induced reporter activity was repressed by TO901317. As has been previously shown for the typical hCAR inverse agonist, PK11195, TO901317 blocked the interaction of hCAR with steroid receptor co-activator 1 (SRC1). In contrast, the interaction between hCAR and nuclear receptor corepressor 1 (NCoR1) was promoted by PK11195 and TO901317. Furthermore, the hCAR-mediated basal induction of endogenous cytochrome P450 2B6 (CYP2B6) mRNA was adversely affected by co-treatment with TO901317.

Animal defense mechanisms against both endogenous and exogenous toxic compounds function mainly through receptor-type transcription factors, including the constitutive androstane receptor (CAR). Following xenobiotic stimulation, CAR translocates into the nucleus and transactivates its target genes including oxygenic and conjugative enzymes and transporters in hepatocytes. We identified subcellular localization signals in the rat CAR: two nuclear localization signals (NLS1 and 2); two nuclear export signals (NES1 and 2); and a cytoplasmic retention region. The nuclear import of CAR is regulated by the importin-Ran system and microtubule network. Five splice variants (SV1-5) were identified in rat liver in addition to wild-type CAR. When expressed in immortalized cells, their artificial transcripts were inactive as transcription factors. A CAR mutant with three consecutive alanine residues inserted into the ligand-binding domain of CAR showed ligand-dependent activation of target genes in immortalized cells, which is in marked contrast to the constitutive transactivating nature of wild-type CAR. Using this assay system, androstenol and clotrimazole, both of which are inverse agonists of CAR, were classified as an antagonist and weak agonist, respectively. A member of the DEAD box DNA/RNA helicase family (DP97) and protein arginine methyltransferase 5 (PRMT5) were found to be gene (or promotor)-specific coactivators of CAR. The expression of the CAR gene might be under the control of clock genes mediated by the nuclear receptor Rev-erb-α.

The aryl hydrocarbon receptor (AhR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor. Recent studies have reported the anti-tumor effects of the AhR in breast cancer. In this study, we investigated the anti-tumor effect of AhR activation based on the cancer stem cell hypothesis. We show that AhR activation suppressed mammosphere formation of MCF-7 cells and decreased the proportion of cells with high ALDH-1 (aldehyde dehydrogenase 1) activity. In addition, we also demonstrate that AhR activation regulates self-renewal signaling by down-regulating Wnt/β-catenin and Notch.

Human bronchial mucins, such as MUC5AC, have traditionally been defined as a family of high-molecular weight glycoproteins. Changes in the contents of sugar chains on MUC5AC are among the fundamental features in inflammatory respiratory disease. The changes have been shown to lead to unfavorable alterations in the viscosity of mucus, resulting in impairment of mucociliary transport, vulnerability to viral/bacterial infection as sugar chains play an important role in adhesion of some viruses and bacteria to the epithelium, and finally inflammatory cell infiltration in the airway. Recently, we found that expression of some glycosyltransferases associated with the contents and structure of sugar chains is regulated by phosphatidylinositol-phospholipase (PI-PL) C signaling in cells. L-Carbocisteine, a mucoregulatory drug, normalized or balanced fucosylated and sialylated sugar chains, such as sialyl Lewis x through inhibition of PI-PL C signaling. We prepared MUC5AC fusion protein with tandem repeats associated with MUC5AC, and confirmed that L-carbocisteine inhibited the increases in viscosity associated with sialyl Lewis x expression levels. In addition, the clinical study (2008) noted that L-carbocisteine reduced the frequency of common colds and exacerbation of symptoms in patients with COPD. These favorable effects in patients may be due to normalization of sugar chain contents on mucins. We suggest that the inhibitory effect on infection of airway epithelial cells by rhinoviruses, respiratory syncytial virus, and influenza viruses by treatment with L-carbocisteine may also be based on the regulation of sugar chain contents or structures on mucins.

TS-1 is an oral anticancer agent comprising three components: two biochemical modulators of 5-fluorouracil (5-FU) and tegafur (FT), a prodrug of 5-FU. TS-1 displays potent anti-tumor activity by maintaining effective 5-FU concentrations in serum for a prolonged period. FT is gradually converted to 5-FU in vivo via 5’-hydroxylation mediated by cytochrome P450s. As a result, genetic polymorphisms can cause wide individual differences in serum concentration of 5-FU after administration of TS-1, requiring monitoring of serum concentration of 5-FU for each patient. Chemotherapy with TS-1 plays a majo rr ole in the treatment of oral cancer. In cases where a patient with oral cancer shows dysphagia, TS-1 may need to be tube-administered. Although tube administration by the simple suspension method has been recommended fro ma biosafety perspective, particularly for anti-cancer agents, its efficacy remains unclear. We established a simple high-performance liquid chromatography method for simultaneous determination of FT and 5-FU levels at clinical sites by modifying a method reported in the literature. 1) Unlike the original method, this simplified method does not require extraction procedures to separate FT and 5-FU, and requires only 250µ lo f serum. Using this method, we compared F Tc oncentrations in the sera of oral cancer patients administered TS-1 orally or via a tube-assisted simple suspension method. No significant differences in FT concentrations were apparent between these two modes of administration. TS-1 treatment by tube administration using the simple suspension method thus seems useful for patients with dysphagia as an alternative to oral dosage.

Vitellogenin (VTG) is a useful biomarker for detecting the estrogenic activity of chemicals in aquatic environments. However, little information is available on the regulatory mechanisms of the expression of each VTG subtype, particularly the relationship between expression patterns of VTG1/2 and estrogen receptor (ER) subtypes, such as ERα and ERβ. In this paper, we measured VTG1 and VTG2 mRNA induction in male medaka liver, which was treated with ERα-selective ligand, (17α, 20E)-3-hydroxy-17,20-[(1-methoxyethylidene)bis(oxy)]-19norpregna-1,3,5(10),20-tetraene-21-carboxylic acid, methyl ester or ERβ-selective ligand, 2-(4-hydroxyphenyl)5-hydroxy-1,3-benzoxazole and investigated the characteristics of ER subtype function in VTG1 and VTG2 inductions. Hepatic VTG1 mRNA was induced by ERα-selective ligands at even low concentration and maximum increases were the same as for E2. VTG2 mRNA was also increased, but its levels were very low. On the other hand, ERβ-selective ligands significantly increased VTG2 mRNA in the presence of ERα agonists. These results indicate that the expression of each VTG subtype is regulated by unique ER subtypes. VTG1 expression is only regulated by the action of ERα. In contrast, VTG2 expression is regulated by both ERα and ERβ, with ERα being essential for VTG2 gene expression and ERβ being essential for enhancement.

The metabolism of methamphetamine (MA) and 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B) in freshly isolated rat hepatocytes was investigated, and compared with in vivo results. A suspended hepatocyte culture, established from male Wistar rats using a collagenase perfusion technique, was incubated in the presence of MA or 2C-B. After enzymatic hydrolysis of the conjugated forms, the metabolites were extracted by liquid-liquid partition and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). Amphetamine, p-hydroxymethamphetamine and p-hydroxyamphetamine were detected in the culture fluids of the rat hepatocytes inoculated with MA. The alcohol derivative, carboxylic acid derivative, 2-O-desmethyl-2C-B, 2-O-desmethyl-N-acetyl-2C-B and 5-O-desmethyl-N-acetyl-2C-B were detected in the case of 2C-B. The major metabolite of MA in rat hepatocytes was p-hydroxymethamphetamine. This is in good agreement with the urinary excretion profile for rats that were fed MA. 2-O-Desmethyl-2C-B and the carboxylic acid derivative were the major recovered metabolites of 2C-B in the rat hepatocyte culture, a slight deviation from the in vivo findings, in which 5-O-desmethyl-N-acetyl-2C-B was found to be the main component. Metabolites with a hydroxy group were largely present in their conjugated forms in the culture fluids, except for 2-O-desmethyl-2C-B. Taking these results into consideration, a primary hepatocyte culture system has the potential to provide a quick and handy method for estimating the in vivo metabolic fate of abused drugs.

Both the glucocorticoid receptor (GR) agonist dexamethasone (DEX) and GR antagonist pregnenolone 16α-carbonitrile (PCN) enhanced the transcription of CYP3A1 in rats though in a different fashion. Seven-week old male Wister rats were intraperitoneally administered one to three times with corn oil (vehicle) or DEX and/or PCN (80 mg/kg each) at 24-hr intervals according to various schedules. The animals were sacrificed twenty-four hours after the last treatment, and the dissected livers and lungs were examined for mRNA contents of CYP3A1 and pregnane X receptor (PXR) by real time PCR. DEX appeared to act mainly as an inducer of PXR, that in turn transactivated the CYP3A1 gene, by activating the GR, while PCN was deduced to have a direct effect on the expression of the CYP3A1 gene via activation of PXR from the rapid increase in CYP3A1 mRNA in comparison with DEX. Sequential treatment with DEX and PCN in this order induced CYP3A1 mRNA expression more effectively than treatment in the opposite order. When DEX and PCN were administered simultaneously, the induction of PXR by DEX was reversed by PCN, resulting from their competitive effects on the GR. In the lung, an increase in the CYP3A1 mRNA level was observed in the presence of DEX but not PCN, independently of the GR-activation.

The mammalian constitutively active receptor (CAR) is a ligand-activated transcription factor that participates in controlling the expression of cytochrome P450 2B (CYP2B) genes in response to phenobarbital (PB) in rodents. CYP2B forms are highly inducible in liver and intestine in male Wistar rats. In contrast, PB-dependent increases in CYP2B activity are rarely observed in female Wistar rats. The profiles of CAR mRNA expression measured by RT-PCR in various organs in male and female Wistar rats were consistent with those of PB-dependent expression of CYP2B genes. The sex-related dimorphic PB-responses of CYP2B genes in Wistar rats might be determined transcriptionally as are the organospecific PB-responses in both males and females.

Chlorinated ethylenes (CEs) are known to be metabolized by CYP2C as well as CYP2E1 and CYP2B. The effects of CEs on the expression of the rat CYP2C gene in the liver and lung were comparatively studied in terms of the enzyme activity, and protein and mRNA contents. Tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), and 1,1-dichloroethylene (1,1-DCE) were injected at 0.5 g/kg i.p. into male 7-week-old Wistar rats individually or in combination with phenobarbital (PB). The expression of CYP2C mRNA showed organ-specific properties without being detectable in the lung under the assay conditions employed in the present study. Individual CEs had no effect on the enzymatic activity of CYP2C estimated by 2α-hydroxylation of testosterone (2α-TSH), whereas PB markedly enhanced the enzymatic activity in the liver but not the lung microsomes, although it was highly susceptible to the suppressive effect of 1,1-DCE. A down-regulation of pulmonary enzyme activity was observed with PCE by an unknown mechanism when the animals were treated simultaneously with PB. 1,1-DCE was found to inhibit the expression of hepatic mRNA irrespective of the coexistence of PB, and the same was true for CYP2C protein in the same organ to a lesser extent. In an analogy to our previous findings with other xenobiotic-metabolizing CYP forms such as CYP2B1/2 and CYP2E1, a potent suppressive effect of 1,1-DCE was observed with the maximum around 18 hr after the treatment on both constitutive and PB-induced expression of CYP2C.

Chlorinated ethylenes (CEs) including tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE) and 1,1-dichloroethylene (DCE) were comparatively evaluated for their effects on the expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP) forms of subfamilies 1A, 2B, 2E and 3A as well as their relative suitability as substrates of these CYPs. The magnitudes of inhibition of the enzyme activities were as follows in descending order: 1,1-DCE > TCE > PCE against hepatic CYPs and PCE > 1,1-DCE > TCE against pulmonary CYP2B1. These organ-specific profiles in the sensitivities to the adverse effects of CEs were partly attributable to the differential expression patterns of CYP forms by which they were metabolically activated. The expression of hepatic and pulmonary CYP2B mRNA was severely suppressed in the presence of 1,1-DCE during the entire observation period until 30 hr after the CE-treatment, in marked contrast to the temporarily enhanced expression at 6 hr followed by a moderate suppression in the cases of PCE and TCE with the trough values being observed at 18 hr. In addition to CYP2B, 1,1-DCE in advance of the transcriptional stage, when simultaneously treated with phenobarbital, also exclusively suppressed CYP2E1. These general suppressive effects of 1,1-DCE on the expression of divergent CYP mRNAs in vivo resembled the published findings in primary cultured hepatocytes treated with inflammatory cytokines such as IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6, implying the highly inflammatory nature of 1,1-DCE.

Three polychlorinated ethylenes (CEs), tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE) and 1, 1-dichloroethylene (DCE), were comparatively studied for their effects on the expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP) mRNA forms in the liver and lung using 7-weeks-old male Wistar rats. The animals were i.p. inoculated with 0.5 g/kg of the individual CEs and sacrificed at 6-hr intervals for 30 hr for the determination of the mRNA levels of hepatic and pulmonary CYP2B and hepatic CYP2E1. A 3.5-fold increase in the expression of hepatic CYP2B mRNA was noted transiently at 6 hr in the presence of PCE. In contrast, 1, 1-DCE was suppressive and started within 6 hr and lasted for more than 30 hr, with a trough value of 15% of the control being observed around 12 to 18 hr, while there was no marked effect observed in the case of TCE-treatment. The expression of pulmonary CYP2B mRNA was severely suppressed in the presence of 1, 1-DCE during the entire observation period as was the case with its hepatic counterpart, while the temporarily enhanced expression of mRNA at 6 hr by PCE and TCE was followed by a moderate suppression, with the trough values of ca. 80 and 65% of the control, respectively, at 18 hr. Concerning the hepatic CYP2E1, the expression of mRNA was adversely affected by all the CEs with a descending order of magnitude of 1, 1-DCE, TCE and PCE with peak inhibition values of 85%, 50% and 35%, respectively. The nonselective suppressive effect of 1, 1-DCE on the expression of divergent CYP mRNAs was well correlated with the IL-1β-dependent suppression of various types of CYP mRNA in primary cultured hepatocytes previously reported. Although PCE and TCE are under stringent legislative restriction in Japan as environmental pollutants owing to their relatively stable natures, they are less toxic in terms of the inhibition of the mRNA expression of CYP forms in acute phases than short-lived 1, 1-DCE, which is inflammatory to the host animals; the shorter the environmental life span (1, 1-DCE > TCE > PCE), the more severe the acute toxicity.

The manifestation of toxicity by certain environmental compounds requires enzymatic activation. It is well known that chlorinated ethylenes (CEs) are metabolized by intracellular enzymes represented by cytochromes P450 (CYPs) to the urinary secreted forms via epoxide intermediates, which are responsible for their toxicities by forming complexes with intracellular components including CYPs. In order to study the roles of CYPs in the metabolic activation of tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE) or 1, 1-dichloroethylene (1, 1-DCE), the cytotoxicity of individual CEs were tested in primary hepatocyte cultures established from animals treated with various CYP-inducers such as 3-methylchoranthrene (inducer of CYPlAl/2), phenobarbital (CYP2B1/2) and pyridine (CYP2E1). The cytotoxicity of CEs measured by lactate dehydrogenase leakage after 24 hr was enhanced in different fashions, depending on the CYP inducers used. The results are summarized as follows: CYP1A1/2 and 2B1/2 raised the cytotoxicity of PCE;CYP2B1/2 was exclusively associated with the enhanced cytotoxicity of TCE; and CYP2E1 and 2B1/2 were proved to potentiate 1, 1-DCE. Based on these observations, CEs differing in the number of chlorine substitutions were disclosed to have divergent preferences for CYPs, by which they were metabolically activated.

Many environmental chemicals (xenobiotics), including polychlorinated ethylenes (CEs), are known to be metabolically intoxicated via the formation of hazardous intermediates (referred to as biological activation), while the expression of metabolic enzymes might be interfered with by xenobiotics at various stages in a system to minimize their adverse biological effects on the host animals. Three CEs, i.e., tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE) and 1, 1-dichloroethylene (1, 1-DCE), were comparatively studied for their effects on the in vivo expression of CYP forms, which are responsible for their metabolic activation, as well as organospecificities between the liver and lung. Furthermore, their effects on the expression of CYP forms were studied in the animals simultaneously administered with phenobarbital (PB), known as an inducer of CYP2B. Individual CEs were administered intraperitoneally at 0.5 g/kg alone or simultaneously with PB (80 mg/kg/d) to 7-week-old male Wistar rats weighing about 200 g. The testosterone hydroxylase activities, CYP2B- and 2E1-mRNA, and CYP2B- and 2E1-proteins were measured 24 hr after the treatment. Testosterone 2β-hydroxylase (2βTSH) and 16βTSH activities are attributable to the functions of CYP3A2, and CYP2B plus CYP3A2, respectively. The induction of hepatic CYP2B in the PB-treated animals might be masked by the suppressive effect of CYP3A2 in terms of the 16βTSH activity, while the pulmonary 16βTSH activity was confined to the function of CYP2B, which was insensitive to the inducing effect of PB. The inhibition of hepatic 16βTSH activity was observed exclusively in the presence of 1, 1-DCE, especially in PB-coadministered animals, suggesting the preferable suppression of CYP2B. In the lung, however, PCE suppressed the 16βTSH activity in the absence of PB. The expression levels of hepatic CYP2B mRNA and protein were significantly lowered by 1, 1-DCE in the presence of PB. Concerning hepatic CYP2E1, no alternation was observed in the levels of mRNA and protein by any of the CEs in the absence or presence of PB, except for a marked decrease in the amount of mRNA when the rats were treated with 1, 1-DCE in combination with PB. In the lung, both mRNA and protein were not detected under the given assay conditions, as in our previous studies. Based on these results, it is suggested that 1, 1-DCE suppresses the induction of hepatic CYP2B and 2E1 in advance of the transcriptional stage. The expression of pulmonary CYP2B was obstructed by PCE posttranslationally in the absence of PB.

Almost all of fucose and sialic acid in mucus are found on the mucus glycoproteins (mucins), and these sugar components on mucins are known to be associated with the viscous property of mucus. We have reported some aspects of carbocisteine, a mucoregulatory drug, correcting fucose and sialic acid contents in mucus. At present, carbocisteine's expectorant action of airway mucus is postulated to involve - the regulation of fucose and sialic acid contents on mucins. However little information is available about the relationship between the viscosity and sugar contents on mucins when treated with carbocisteine. To investigate further the mechanism behind the action of carbocisteine, the present study prepared MUC5AC fusion protein which has tandem repeat regions associated with MUC5AC, and evaluated the effects of carbocisteine on tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-induced increases of mucus viscosity and sialyl-Lewis x-epitopes antigen, an antigen which consists of fucosylated and sialylated sugar chains on the MUC5AC fusion proteins. Carbocisteine inhibited the TNF-alpha-induced increases of the viscosity and sialyl-Lewis x-epitopes on MUC5AC fusion protein. These findings suggest that carbocisteine may normalize the viscosity of mucus through "balancing" of fucose and sialic acid contents on airway mucins.

Chlorinated ethylenes (CEs) such as tetrachloroethylene (PCE), trichloroethylene (TCE), 1, 1-dichloroethylene (1, 1-DCE), cis-1, 2-dichloroethylene (cis-DCE), and trans-1, 2-dichloroethylene (trans-DCE) are members of the class of volatile halogenated hydrocarbons. Each was administered intraperitoneally at 0.5g/kg alone or simultaneously with phenobarbital (PB, 80mg/kg/d) to male Wistar rats weighing about 200g (7-weeks-old). Microsomal fractions of livers and lungs removed from animals sacrificed 24h after treatment were tested for monooxygenase activities and protein content of 4 cytochrome P450 (CYP) forms, i.e., CYP1A1/2, 2B1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2. In terms of constitutive expression, they were compensatory in liver and lung with CYP1A1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2 being detected only in liver and CYP2B1 only in lung. All 5 CEs employed in this work suppressed hepatic CYP1A1/2, 2E1 and 3A1/2 in the descending order of 1, 1-DCE > cis-DCE > trans-DCE > TCE > PCE. The magnitude of suppression of pulmonary CYP2B1 by CEs were compared as follows; PCE > trans-DCE > 1, 1-DCE > cis-DCE > TCE. CYP1A1/2, CYP2E1 and CYP3A1/2 in hepatic microsomes from PB-treated animals responded to CEs similarly to those from PB-untreated animals. These 3 enzyme activities could not be detected in pulmonary microsomal fractions, irrespective of the PB-treatment. Hepatic CYP2B1/2 could be detected only when treated with PB in marked contrast to the constitutive expression of pulmonary CYP2B1. The suppression of PB-induced hepatic CYP2B1/2 was observed with all 5 CEs, with special emphasis on complete inhibition with 1, 1-DCE. The adverse effects of TCE and PCE on pulmonary CYP2B1 from PB-treated rats were comparable with those from PB-untreated animals. In contrast, 3 dichloro-isomers were more suppressive to the enzyme in the absence than in the presence of PB. The protein levels of hepatic CYP forms were generally proportional to the enzyme activities in the case of 1, 1-DCE-treatment. The amounts of pulmonary CYP2B1 apoprotein were in good accordance with the enzyme activities when treated with CEs individually.

Trichloroethylene (TCE) is a highly toxic compound which belongs to the class of volatile halogenated hydrocarbons, which are well-known pollutants of drinking water and the atmosphere. The effects of moderately toxic concentration of TCE on the levels of cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoforms and on their phenobarbital (PB) induction in rats were studied. Monooxygenase activities associated with individual CYP isoforms, i.e., CYP1A, 2B, 2E1 and 3A, were measured in microsomal fractions prepared from both lungs and livers of male and female Wistar rats (7-weeks old). Differences in constitutive levels of CYP isoforms were observed between liver and lung of mock-treated rat ; microsomal CYP2B activity was solely detected in lung while the activities of CYP1A, 2EI and 3A, but not 2B were detected in liver. Among these, the pulmonary CYP2B and hepatic CYP2E1 activities were reduced by TCE-treatment. PB-treatment resulted in the detection of increased levels of hepatic CYP1A and 2E1 and of pulmonary CYP2B activities, and also the appearance of hepatic CYP2B activity. Coadministration of TCE was suppressive against the activities of CYP isoforms except for hepatic CYP2E1 in PB-treated rats. The lowered CYP2B activity in the presence of TCE was accompanied by the reduction in the amount of CYP2B apoprotein.

The myogenic differentiation of C2C12 myoblast cells is induced by the novel androgen receptor (AR) partial agonist, (17α,20E)-17,20-[(1-methoxyethylidene)bis-(oxy)]-3-oxo-19-norpregna-4,20-diene-21-carboxylic acid methyl ester (YK11), as well as by dihydrotestosterone (DHT). YK11 is a selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM), which activates AR without the N/C interaction. In this study, we further investigated the mechanism by which YK11 induces myogenic differentiation of C2C12 cells. The induction of key myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs), such as myogenic differentiation factor (MyoD), myogenic factor 5 (Myf5) and myogenin, was more significant in the presence of YK11 than in the presence of DHT. YK11 treatment of C2C12 cells, but not DHT, induced the expression of follistatin (Fst), and the YK11-mediated myogenic differentiation was reversed by anti-Fst antibody. These results suggest that the induction of Fst is important for the anabolic effect of YK11.

The anti-human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) activity of polyoxometalates of representative structural families, such as Keggin, lacunary Keggin, trivacant Keggin, Keggin sandwich, Wells-Dawson and Wells-Dawson sandwich, was determined using two strains of HIV type 1 (HIV-1HTLV-IIIB and HIV-1SF-2H). The compounds were preferably selected to cover both polyoxotungstates and polyoxomolybdates in each structural family. In general, polyoxotungstates of Keggin, lacunary Keggin, trivacant Keggin, Keggin sandwich, Wells-Dawson and Wells-Dawson sandwich structures showed anti-HIV-1HTLVIIIB activity, whereas most compounds not included in these structural categories were inactive. Among the compounds with a potent anti-HIV-1HTLV-IIIB activity, those of Keggin and its closely related structural families (lacunary Keggin, trivacant Keggin and Keggin sandwich) inhibited the cytopathogenicity and syncytium formation caused by HIV-1SF-2 to a much higher extent compared with HIV-1HTLV-IIIB-related ones. The difference between the spectra of anti-HIV-1HTLV-IIIB activity and the specificity for HIV-1SF-2H might result from differential structural requirements in these functions.

A pair of tetracycline-resistant Staphylococcus aureus strains carrying different resistance determinants, tetK and tetM, were employed to screen some ginseng prosapogenins as antagonists of tetracycline resistance. The tetK gene encodes TetK efflux pump and the tetM gene define a ribosomal-level resistance. The susceptibility of two strains to tetracycline was measured in parallel in the presence of various concentrations of test compounds. The efflux pump not ribosomal protection was adversely affected by ginsenosides Rh 2 , F 1 , 20-O-β-D-glucopyranosyl20(S)-dammar-3, 20-diol (compound K), 20(R)-ginsenoside Rh 2 and their aglycones at nontoxic concentrations, reversing tetracycline resistance in the tetK-carrying S. aureus.

A novel steroid compound, (17α,20E)-17,20-[(1-methoxyethylidene)bis(oxy)]-3-oxo-19-norpregna-4,20-diene-21-carboxylic acid methyl ester (YK11), was found to be a partial agonist of the androgen receptor (AR) in an androgen responsive element (ARE)-luciferase reporter assay. YK11 accelerates nuclear translocation of AR. Furthermore, YK11 does not induce amino/carboxyl-terminal (N/C) interaction and prevents 5-α-dihydrotestosterone (DHT)-mediated N/C interaction. Thus, YK11 activates AR without causing N/C interaction, which may in turn be responsible for the partially agonistic nature of YK11 observed in the ARE-luciferase reporter system. YK11 acts as a gene-selective agonist of AR in MDA-MB 453 cells. The effect of YK11 on gene expression relative to that of androgen agonist varies depending on the gene context. YK11 activated the reporter gene by inducing the translocation of the AR into the nuclear compartment, where its amino-terminal domain (NTD) functions as a constitutive activator of AR target genes. Our results suggest that YK11 might act as selective androgen receptor modulator (SARM).

The expression of the CAR gene is lost in most cultured cell lines, and exogenously expressed CAR accumulates spontaneously in the nuclear compartment, where CAR is constitutively active. Therefore, the assessment of CAR-dependent transcriptional activation has to be evaluated using either animal models or primary cultured hepatocytes. Furthermore, due to the species-specific response of CAR to individual compounds, the results obtained with animal models are not directly applicable to human cases. We established a novel screening system for hCAR ligands (including agonists and inverse agonists) by expressing GAL4/DBD-fused hCAR/LBD, in which three consecutive alanine residues were inserted between helix 11 and helix 12 of LBD, and a commercially obtained plasmid consisting of the firefly luciferase gene downstream of the GAL4 responsive element in a cultured cell line. Androstenol (Andro) and clotrimazole (CLT), which are both inverse agonists of hCAR, were classified as an antagonist and weak agonist, respectively, in our novel assay system. Among DDT and its metabolites DDE and DDD, only DDT worked as an agonist of the hCAR mutant, although all of them were enrolled as agonists of SXR. Using this system, the screening for hCAR ligands can be conducted without sacrificing animals.

The purification and physico-chemical properties of the enactin congeners are concerned in this paper. We proposed the group name hydroxamic acid antimycotic antibiotics (HAAA) for enactin, neoenactin and the related antibiotics. Streptomyces roseoviridis, the enactin-producing microbe, was cultured to prepare an inoculum seed.

The variant cell lines stably expressing aryl hydrocarbon receptor repressor (AhRR), MCFRR1 and MCFRR4, were established from human breast cancer MCF-7 cells by transfecting with AhRR-expression construct followed by selection, in order to analyze the effect of AhRR on the cell growth and expression of cell cycle-related genes. The variant cells showed higher levels of AhRR mRNA compared with the parental cells. MCFRR4 cells grew slowly compared with MCF-7 in both cell number and proliferation rate measured by the MTS method. Among cell cycle-related genes such as E2F, cyclin E1, cyclin D1, PCNA, p53, Rb, c-myc and p27Kip1, and estrogen responsive genes such as cathepsin D and hsp27, the expression levels of E2F, cyclin E1, PCNA and cathepsin D mRNA in MCFRR4 cells were lower than those in MCF-7 cells, while those of Rb, p27Kip1, c-myc and hsp27 mRNA were not significantly affected and that of cyclin D1 mRNA was enhanced in variant cells. Based on these results, AhRR might be suppressive on cell growth of MCF-7 by disturbing the transcriptional and/or posttranscriptional regulations of estrogen-responsive and cell cycle-related genes.

Carbocisteine is a mucoregulatory drug normalizing sialic acid and fucose contents in mucins through the regulation of glycosyltransferase activities. Tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha-induced overexpression of sialyl-Lewis x epitopes, containing sialic acid and fucose, in mucins were previously reported to be regulated by glycosyltransferase mRNAs expression through phosphatidyl inositol-specific phospholipase C (PI-PLC) signaling pathways [Ishibashi, Y., Inouye, Y., Okano, T., Taniguchi, A., 2005. Regulation of sialyl-Lewis x epitope expression by TNF-alpha and EGF in an airway carcinoma cell line. Glycoconj. J. 22, 53-62]. To investigate the mechanism behind the mucoregulatory action of carbocisteine, the present study evaluated the effects of carbocisteine on TNF-alpha-induced overexpression of sialyl-Lewis x epitopes in NCI-H292 cells. 100 mug/ml of carbocisteine was able to inhibit the TNF-alpha-induced expression of hST3GallV mRNA, FUT3 mRNA, C2/4GnT mRNA and sialyl-Lewis x epitopes as well as the TNF-alpha-induced activity of PI-PLC in NCI-H292 cells. These findings suggest that carbocisteine may normalize the sialyl-Lewis x epitopes expression in mucins through the inhibition of cellular PI-PLC activity in vivo.

The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3) is very important for drug development and for understanding pharmacokinetic drug–drug interactions. We screened by mammalian one hybrid assay among natural compounds to discover novel ligands of human constitutive androstane receptor (hCAR). hCAR transcriptional activity was measured by luciferase assay and mRNA levels of CYP2B6 and CYP3A4 in HepTR-hCAR cells and human primary hepatocytes were measured by real-time RT-PCR. Nigramide J (NJ) whose efficacy is comparable to those of hitherto known inverse agonists such as clotrimazole, PK11195, and ethinylestradiol. NJ is a naturally occurring cyclohexane-type amide alkaloid that was isolated from the roots of Piper nigrum. The suppressive effect of NJ on the CAR-dependent transcriptional activity was found to be species specific, in the descending order of hCAR, rat CAR, and mouse CAR. The unliganded hCAR-dependent transactivation of reporter and endogenous genes was suppressed by NJ at concentrations higher than 5 μmol/L. The ligand-binding cavity of hCAR was shared by NJ and CITCO, because they were competitive in the binding to hCAR. NJ interfered with the interaction of hCAR with coactivator SRC-1, but not with its interaction with the corepressor NCoR1. Furthermore, NJ is agonist of human pregnane X receptor (hPXR). NJ is a dual ligand of hCAR and hPXR, being an agonist of hPXR and an inverse agonist of hCAR.

One isopolyoxometalate and 42 heteropolyoxometalates consisting of 3 compounds with the trivacant Keggin structure, 2 with the lacunary Keggin structure, 30 with the Keggin structure, one with the Wells-Dawson structure and 6 with miscellaneous structures were tested for their suppressive effect on the cytopathogenicity of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) in vitro and inhibitory activity against HIV-1 reverse transcriptase. In contrast to the leading interpretations which attribute the suppressive effect of polyoxometalates on the cytopathogenicity of HIV-1 to the inhibition of HIV-1 reverse transcriptase by these compounds, there was no distinct correlation observed between these two functions of polyoxometalates.

Since 1969, authors have been doing a statistical analysis of airborne pollen grains, aiming at the clarification of their atmospheric behaviors, in connection with an increase in a number of pollinosis cases. The airborne pollens were collected three times a week starting from January 1 and ending December 31 with the help of cascade impactor, by which 6001 of air was suctioned at the rate of 51 per min for 2 h from 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 at the rooftop of one of the buildings (16 m high) in the Narashino Campus of Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba. The collected airborne pollens were numerated and classified under microscope according to the Ikuse's classification system for Japanese pollens. The number of days (n) was plotted as a function of daily number of a certain type of airborne pollens (x), not fitting to a simple normal distribution. However, the data were found to approximate a normal distribution when x was log-transformed as ln (x + 1). Among the statistical methods tested, semilogarithmic plot, Weibull plot, Edwards' plot and circular graph method were found to be useful in the follow-up of seasonal variation of environmental pollen grains, especially when used in combination.

Since 1969, authors have been doing a statistical analysis of airborne pollen grains, aiming at the clarification of their atmospheric behaviors, in connection with an increase in a number of pollinosis cases. The airborne pollens were collected three times a week starting from January 1 and ending December 31 with the help of cascade impactor, by which 6001 of air was suctioned at the rate of 51 per min for 2 h from 10:00 a.m. to 12:00 at the rooftop of one of the buildings (16 m high) in the Narashino Campus of Toho University, Funabashi, Chiba. The collected airborne pollens were numerated and classified under microscope according to the Ikuse's classification system for Japanese pollens. The number of days (n) was plotted as a function of daily number of a certain type of airborne pollens (x), not fitting to a simple normal distribution. However, the data were found to approximate a normal distribution when x was log-transformed as ln (x + 1). Among the statistical methods tested, semilogarithmic plot, Weibull plot, Edwards' plot and circular graph method were found to be useful in the follow-up of seasonal variation of environmental pollen grains, especially when used in combination.

A polyoxomolybdoeuropate PM-104 (NH4)12H2[Eu4(MoO4)(H2O)16(Mo7O24)4].13H2O was found to be a potent inhibitor of the growth of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), a causative agent of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). On the basis of TI50 [median cytotoxic concentration (CC50)/median effective concentration (EC50)], the in vitro anti-HIV-1 activity of PM-104 is favorably comparable to that of a heteropolyoxotungstate PM-19 K7[PTi2W10O40].6H2O, which is one of the most potent HIV-1 inhibitors among the polyoxometalates so far tested. The heteropolyoxomolybdate with a potent anti-HIV-1 activity is introduced for the first time in this communication.

Examined in vitro were the effects of some triterpenoids from Panax (Araliaceae) and Glycyrrhiza (Leguminosae) spp. on the sensitivity to daunomycin (DAU) and vinblastine (VBL) of adriamycin (ADM)-resistant P388 leukemia cells (P388/ADM), which were resistant to multiple anticancer drugs. Quasipanaxatriol, 20(S)-protopanaxatriol, ginsenoside Rh2, and compound K greatly enhanced the cytotoxicity of the anti-cancer drugs in P388/ADM cells. The extent of enhancement was different among the triterpene compounds; the 4- to 46-fold increase in DAU cytotoxicity was observed in P388/ADM cells in the presence of non-toxic or marginally toxic concentrations of individual compounds, while those for VBL were in the ratios of 2- to 37-fold. The maximum increase in cytotoxicity was observed with 50 microM quasipanaxatriol; the resistance indices defined to be the ratios of the IC50 values for P388/ADM and P388 parental cells decreased from 79 to 1.7 and from 180 to 4.9 in the cases of DAU and VBL, respectively. The reversal of DAU resistance in P388/ADM by quasipanaxatriol could be explained by the effective accumulation of the drugs mediated by the DAU-efflux blockage.

The cell-to-cell transmission of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was studied using MOLT-4 cells chronically infected with a variant strain of HIV-1SF-2 (MOLT-4/HIV-1SF-2H) and CD4+ human lymphoid MT-4 cells. MOLT-4/HIV-1SF-2H cells produced less than 1 TCID50 infectious particles per 105 cells per day as determined by the cytopathogenicity in MT-4 cells. However, the expression of envelope glycoproteins gp120 and gp41 on the MOLT-4/HIV-1SF-2H cell membrane was satisfactory for syncytium formation with the uninfected MOLT-4 cells. When MOLT-4/HIV-1SF-2H and MT-4 cells were co-cultured, severe cytopathogenicity was observed in MT-4 cells without being accompanied by the formation of multi-nucleated cells. Thus, the system consisting of MOLT-4/HIV-1SF-2H and MT-4 cells is convenient for exclusive study of the mechanism of cell-to-cell transmission of HIV-1. Using various compounds, it was confirmed that cell-to-cell transmission required both gp120/gp41-CD4 binding and de novo DNA synthesis.

A screening for inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) among various types of isopolyoxomolybdates and heteropolyoxomolybdates was carried out by using an in vitro assay system measuring the cytopathogenicity of HIV-1 in CD4+ human MT-4 cells. A novel heteropolyoxomolybdate named PM-104 with the chemical formula (NH4)12H2(Eu4(MoO4)(H2O)16(Mo7O24)4).13H2O was found to be associated with potent anti-HIV-1 activity. PM-104 interferes with virus infection at a very early step such as adsorption and/or penetration into the cells. In addition to the cytopathic effect of HIV-1 on MT-4 cells, syncytium formation between mock-infected MOLT-4 cells and MOLT-4 cells chronically infected with either HIV-1 or HIV-2 is suppressed by PM-104. PM-104 also blocks the replication of herpes simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and type 2 (HSV-2). The antiviral properties of PM-104 could be attributed to the combined effect of europium atoms and its peculiar three-dimensional anion structure.

Fifteen heteropolyoxotungstates were tested for their effects on the proliferation of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) using an in vitro system consisting of MT-4 cells and HTLV-III b . Eight heteropolyoxotungstates (HPOTs) with the Keggin structure or dimerized deficient Keggin structure proved to be potent inhibitors of HIV-1. In contrast, seven non-Keggin HPOTs including HPA 23 did not have significant effects on HIV-1 proliferation at non-toxic doses. [PTi 2 W 10 O 40 ] 7− (PM-19) was the most potent inhibitor of HIV-1 among the 15 HPOTs tested. The inhibition of HIV-1 replication by PM-19 presumably results from impaired virus adsorption and/or penetration into target cells. Viral spread of HIV-1 and HIV-2 on cell-to-cell basis was also susceptible to PM-19. In combination, PM-19 and 3′-azido-3′-deoxythymidine were synergistic in inhibiting HIV-1 proliferation.

In a search for anthracyclines which are able to overcome drug resistance or highly toxic even to adriamycin(ADM)-resistant cells, a total of 37 anthracyclines, including ADM and daunomycin, have been evaluated for their growth inhibitory activity against parental and ADM-resistant L5178Y and P388 cells in vitro. The drug resistance mechanism in L5178Y/ADM is also discussed in comparison with that for P388/ADM.

A Keggin polyoxotungstate PM-19 K7[PTi2W10O40]·6H2O was found to be a potent inhibitor of the replication of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which causes acquired immunodeficiency syntdrome (AIDS), in OKT4+ cells. In contrast, the effect of HPA 23 (NH4)17Na[NaSb9W21O86], an inhibitor of reverse transcriptase of HIV, was not significant.

BACKGROUND: The constitutive androstane receptor (CAR, NR1I3) plays a key role in the transcriptional activation of genes that encode xenobiotic/steroid and drug metabolizing enzymes. RESULTS: The expression of CAR mRNA throughout the circadian rhythm is reported for the first time in phase with the clock gene Bmal1 and in antiphase with the clock-controlled gene Rev-erbalpha mRNAs, with a peak at Zeitgeber time (ZT) 20 and a trough at ZT8, and a peak/trough ratio of 2.0. The diurnal difference in CAR mRNA expression might underlie the 1.7-fold difference in the magnitude of the PB-dependent induction of CYP2B1/2 mRNA. CONCLUSION: The circadian oscillation of xenosensor gene CAR mRNA expression is partially responsible for chronopharmacokinetics and chronopharmacology in disease.

Inhibition of avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) reverse transcriptase by natural and synthetic quinones including antibiotics could be accounted for by an oxidation-reduction reaction. The quinones were shown to function as electron acceptors as revealed by the catalytic oxidation of NADH by Clostridium kluyveri diaphorase which was in excellent agreement with enzyme inhibition activity. The kinetics of inhibition of AMV reverse transcriptase by three synthetic quinones with different core structures, i.e., 6-methoxy-5, 8-dihydroquinoline-5, 8-dione, 5, 8-dihydroisoquinoline-5, 8-dione and 1, 4-naphthoqumone, were studied. These quinones inhibited reverse transcriptase in the same manner as streptonigrin (STN) and were shown to act at a single class of reaction site(s) on the enzyme molecule. In contrast, the quinones with bulky substituents, i.e., 7-(2-nitrophenethylamino)-5, 8-dihydroisoquinoline-5, 8-dione and 7-methoxy6-methyl-3-piperidino-5, 8-dihydroisoquinoline-5, 8-dione, were inactive as inhibitors of reverse transcriptase, whereas they retained competent catalytic activities in the oxidation of NADH by C. kluyveri diaphorase. Based on these observations, the existence of a specific site of interaction on the enzyme molecule, referred to as a quinone pocket, was proposed. The quinone pocket might play a crucial role in the early sequence of events leading to the inhibition of reverse transcriptase by quinones including STN and sakyomicin A (SKM). Access of SKM to a quinone pocket might be restricted due to its bulky structure in the vicinity of the quinone group. This is inferred from unsuccessful inhibition of reverse transcriptase by the quinones with bulky substituents, resulting in much poorer inhibition of reverse transcriptase in spite of more potent electron acceptor activity in the oxidationreduction system as compared with those of STN.

The inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) reverse transcriptase by certain antibiotics and related compounds was studied in comparison with that of avian myeloblastosis virus (AMV) reverse transcriptase and cellular DNA polymerases alpha and beta. In general, compounds that inhibited HIV reverse transcriptase also inhibited AMV reverse transcriptase. For example, 10 micrograms/ml of the isoquinoline quinones used in this study inhibited approximately 80% of the activity of reverse transcriptases of HIV and AMV, but did not inhibit the activity of DNA polymerases alpha and beta even at 50 micrograms/ml. AMV enzyme was more sensitive than HIV enzyme to colistin, enduracidins A and B, janiemycin, glysperin A, and thielavins A and B. The streptonigrin alkyl esters, however, inhibited HIV reverse transcriptase only. Sakyomicin A, luzopeptins, ellagic acid and suramine inhibited the activities of reverse transcriptases and cellular DNA polymerases.

The structures of neoenactins (NEs) NL1 and NL2, novel antimycotic antibiotics produced by Streptoverticillium olivoreticuli in a precursor-oriented fashion, were elucidated by 1H and 13C NMR and mass spectroscopic studies. The structures of both antibiotics are closely related to that of NE-A, the major component of NE congeners, being classified in the group of hydroxamic acid antimycotic antibiotics in which L-serine and a diketo amine form a hydroxamic acid structure. To study the role of the carbonyl groups in the biological activities of the hydroxamic acid antimycotic antibiotics, NE-A was modified by reaction with various carbonyl reagents. In terms of antimycotic activity, the derivatives are classified into two distinct groups; the first ones are fairly comparable to but not exceeding and the second ones are less active than NE-A depending on their tendency to revert to NE-A by hydrolysis. In general, the biological activities of the derivatives are inversely proportional to their stabilities to hydrolysis.