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A 7‐year‐old female ostrich (Struthio camelus) presented with lameness, left intertarsal joint swelling and a healing wound on the caudomedial aspect of the joint. Synovial culture revealed Corynebacterium species and radiographs were consistent with progressive septic arthritis. Multiple treatments were attempted including through‐and‐through joint lavage, intra‐articular antibiotics, caudomedial arthrotomy, and regional limb perfusion in conjunction with systemic antibiotics and analgesia. Euthanasia was ultimately performed due to prolonged recumbency and poor prognosis. This report describes novel therapies and a surgical approach utilized for treatment of intertarsal septic arthritis in an ostrich and exemplifies the poor prognosis described in other species presenting with non‐responsive septic arthritis of critical joints., A female ostrich (Struthio camelus) presented with left intertarsal septic arthritis that was culture positive for Corynebacterium. This report describes novel therapies and a surgical approach utilized for attempted treatment of intertarsal septic arthritis in an ostrich and exemplifies the poor prognosis described in other species presenting with non‐responsive septic arthritis of critical joints.

The primary goal of this study was to document the gross morphological and histological structure and histomorphometrical measurements of the intestines and digestive glands of ostrich (Struthio camelus) in relation to advancing age and sex. A total of 40 clinically healthy ostriches of either sex [(20 males, 20 females comprising of two age groups, viz, immature (1 month to 2.4 years) and adult (2.5 to 10 years)] of equal size were selected. Immediately after collection, morphological studies were carried out on all organs. Histological and histometrical studies were conducted on paraffin-embedded tissue sections with Image J® analysis software. Macroscopic parameters of the intestines, liver and pancreas invariably showed a rapid increase (P

Extant cassowaries (Casuarius) are unique flightless birds found in the tropics of Indo-Australia. They have garnered substantial attention from anatomists with focus centered on the bony makeup and function of their conspicuous cranial casques, located dorsally above the orbits and neurocranium. The osteological patterning of the casque has been formally described previously; however, there are differing interpretations between authors. These variable descriptions suggest that an anatomical understanding of casque anatomy and its constituent elements may be enhanced by developmental studies aimed at further elucidating this bizarre structure. In the present study, we clarify casque osteology of the southern cassowary (C. casuarius) by detailing casque anatomy across an extensive growth series for the first time. We used micro-computed tomography (μCT) imaging to visualize embryonic development and post-hatching ontogeny through adulthood. We also sampled closely related emus (Dromaius novaehollandiae) and ostriches (Struthio camelus) to provide valuable comparative context. We found that southern cassowary casques are comprised of three paired (i.e., nasals, lacrimals, frontals) and two unpaired elements (i.e., mesethmoid, median casque element). Although lacrimals have rarely been considered as casque elements, the contribution to the casque structure was evident in μCT images. The median casque element has often been cited as a portion of the mesethmoid. However, through comparisons between immature C. casuarius and D. novaehollandiae, we document the median casque element as a distinct unit from the mesethmoid.

The present study describes an almost complete cervical region of the fossil ostrich Struthio karatheodoris from the Turolian locality of Kerassia (Euboea, Greece). The material comes from two dist...

Pseudosuchians, archosaurian reptiles more closely related to crocodylians than to birds, exhibited high morphological diversity during the Triassic with numerous examples of morphological convergence described between Triassic pseudosuchians and post-Triassic dinosaurs. One example is the shuvosaurid Effigia okeeffeae which exhibits an "ostrich-like" bauplan comprising a gracile skeleton with edentulous jaws and large orbits, similar to ornithomimid dinosaurs and extant palaeognaths. This bauplan is regarded as an adaptation for herbivory, but this hypothesis assumes morphological convergence confers functional convergence, and has received little explicit testing. Here, we restore the skull morphology of Effigia, perform myological reconstructions, and apply finite element analysis to quantitatively investigate skull function. We also perform finite element analysis on the crania of the ornithomimid dinosaur Ornithomimus edmontonicus, the extant palaeognath Struthio camelus and the extant pseudosuchian Alligator mississippiensis to assess the degree of functional convergence with a taxon that exhibit "ostrich-like" bauplans and its closest extant relatives. We find that Effigia possesses a mosaic of mechanically strong and weak features, including a weak mandible that likely restricted feeding to the anterior portion of the jaws. We find limited functional convergence with Ornithomimus and Struthio and limited evidence of phylogenetic constraints with extant pseudosuchians. We infer that Effigia was a specialist herbivore that likely fed on softer plant material, a niche unique among the study taxa and potentially among contemporaneous Triassic herbivores. This study increases the known functional diversity of pseudosuchians and highlights that superficial morphological similarity between unrelated taxa does not always imply functional and ecological convergence.

A one-year old female ostrich (Struthio camelus) was presented for surgical excision with the history of growth near left hock joint (ankle) and progressively increasing in size. The tumorous mass was surgically excised after sedation and local infiltrative anesthesia. Histopathological examination of the mass revealed a large number of fibrocytes and fibroblasts arranged in an irregular manner accompanied with high degree of neovascularisation. Few areas also showed infiltration of inflammatory cells, degenerative fibroblast cells, high mitotic figures and extensive local invasion to surrounding soft tissues. These features were indicative of clear malignancy and condition was diagnosed as a case of fibrosarcoma.

In this study, the ultrastructural development of germ cells in the ostrich embryo was analysed. The nuclear organisation and morphological characteristics of cytoplasm in the developing germ cells, on embryonic days 20, 26, and 36 and the day of hatching (5 samples from each stage) was analysed using transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Germ cells located in the cortex of left ovaries were identified by their large size and centrally located nucleus, with a conspicuous nucleolus. In these cells, the cytoplasm contained an abundance of mitochondria and free ribosomes. The structure of Balbiani body, a villous-like elevation in wide intercellular space and desmosome junction between two adjacent germ cells was also studied. The germ cells during embryonic development showed structural differences in both the nucleus and cytoplasm.

Toxoplasmosis is a globally spread disease, affecting humans and many animal species, including birds. Antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii were detected in ostriches from South and North America, Africa and Asia. Except for one study from Spain, there is a lack of information about T. gondii seroprevalence in ostriches from Europe. For this reason, the aim of the study was to detect antibodies to T. gondii in farm-reared ostriches from the Czech Republic. Serum samples of 409 ostriches (Struthio camelus), collected at 9 farms were tested by Latex agglutination test. Antibodies to T. gondii were detected in 149 (36%) birds with a statistical difference for individual farms (8%–71%, p = 0.0121), and regions (8%–65%, p = 0.002). Seropositivity did not statistically differ (p > 0.05) in size of farms (50% and 35% on small and large farms, respectively), sex of birds (38% and 35% in males and females, respectively), season and year of collection. Tissue samples (brain, heart, and pectoral muscle) of 105 birds were also tested by PCR to detect T. gondii DNA. The parasite T. gondii was detected in the brain and heart of one seronegative ostrich (1%) from a small farm. Based on our results, we can assume that ostriches may present high risk of toxoplasmosis for humans through consumption of raw or undercooked ostrich meat and even seronegative individuals could harbor T. gondii in their tissues. To our knowledge, this is the first serological detection of T. gondii in ostriches in the Czech Republic, and the first PCR detection in Europe.

Birds and crocodiles show radically different patterns of brain development, and it is of interest to compare these to determine the pattern of brain growth expected in dinosaurs. Here we provide atlases of 3D brain (endocast) reconstructions for Alligator mississippiensis (alligator) and Struthio camelus (ostrich) through ontogeny, prepared as digital restorations from CT scans of stained head and dry skull specimens. Our morphometric analysis confirms that ostrich brains do not change significantly in shape during postnatal growth, whereas alligator brains unfold from a cramped bird-like shape in the hatchling to an elongate, straight structure in the adult. We confirm that birds exhibit paedomorphic dinosaur endocranial traits such as retaining an enlarged and compact brain shape in the adult, whereas crocodiles show peramorphic traits where the brain elongates with growth as the skull elongates. These atlases of ontogenetic stages of modern bird and crocodilian endocrania provide a basis for comparison of non-avian dinosaur endocasts and consideration of the divergence of the "avian" and "crocodilian" modes of brain development and heterochronic change on phylogenies.

The avian lung is highly specialized and is both functionally and morphologically distinct 30 from that of their closest extant relatives, the crocodilians. It is highly partitioned, with a 31 unidirectionally ventilated and immobilized gas-exchanging lung, and functionally decoupled, 32 compliant, poorly vascularized ventilatory air-sacs. To understand the evolutionary history of 33 the archosaurian respiratory system, it is essential to determine which anatomical 34 characteristics are shared between birds and crocodilians and the role these shared traits play 35 in their respective respiratory biology. To begin to address this larger question, we examined 36 the anatomy of the lung and bronchial tree of ten American alligators (Alligator 37 mississippiensis) and eleven ostriches (Struthio camelus) across an ontogenetic series using 38 traditional and micro-computed tomography (µCT), three-dimensional (3D) digital models, and 39 morphometry. Intraspecific variation and left to right asymmetry were present in certain 40 aspects of the bronchial tree of both taxa but was particularly evident in the cardiac (medial) 41 region of the lungs of alligators and the caudal aspect of the bronchial tree in both species. The 42 cross-sectional area of the primary bronchus at the level of the major secondary airways and 43 cross-sectional area of ostia scaled either isometrically or negatively allometrically in alligators 44 and isometrically or positively allometrically in ostriches with respect to body mass. Of fifteen 45 lung metrics, five were significantly different between the alligator and ostrich, suggesting that 46 these aspects of the lung are more interspecifically plastic in archosaurs. One metric, the 47 distances between the carina and each of the major secondary airways, had minimal 48 intraspecific or ontogenetic variation in both alligators and ostriches, and thus may be a 49 conserved trait in both taxa. In contrast to previous descriptions, the 3D digital models and CT 50 scan data demonstrate that the pulmonary diverticula pneumatize the axial skeleton of the 51 ostrich directly from the gas-exchanging pulmonary tissues instead of the air sacs. Global and 52 specific comparisons between the bronchial topography of the alligator and ostrich reveal 53 multiple possible homologies, suggesting that certain structural aspects of the bronchial tree 54 are likely conserved across Archosauria, and may have been present in the ancestral 55 archosaurian lung.

Diclofenac has been responsible for the deaths of millions of vultures on the Asian subcontinent. While the pathology of toxicity is well described, the mechanism of toxicity remains elusive. However, it was postulated that toxicity could be related to the unique avian renal vascular structure known as the renal portal valve and that that diclofenac altered valve functionality with subsequent renal ischaemia. While plausible, the valva renalis portalis has only been described in a small number of other bird species such as the chicken (Gallus domesticus), the domestic duck (Anas platyrhynchos domesticus) and ostrich (Struthio camelus) but not a raptor. The aim of this study was to evaluate the renal anatomy and related vasculature of the Cape griffon vulture (Gyps coprotheres) (CGV), a species sensitive to the toxic effects of diclofenac, using gross anatomy, histology and vascular casting. The vasculature of the vulture was found to be almost identical to that of the domestic chicken with the valva renalis portalis present in the v. iliaca externa between the v. renalis renalis cranialis and the v. renalis caudalus. The valve was ring-shaped with finger-like processes and histologically was composed of smooth muscle. The valve was also well vascularized and was associated with a nerve plexus. Based on the findings of this study, the proposed mechanism of toxicity is anatomically possible.

The ostrich (Struthio camelus, Linnaeus 1758) is the largest bird in the world. It is of great economic importance in Africa and is found across several countries. With developments in breeding systems, morphological studies that facilitate the application of the knowledge are necessary, considering the species has unique anatomical features. The objective of the present study was to describe the major tributaries of the hepatic vein in the species. Ten viscera of adult individuals of both sexes, which were injected with Neoprene latex through the hepatic vein, were used to visualize their tributaries. After the vascular repletion, the tissues were fixed and conserved in 10% formaldehyde aqueous solution. The hepatic carrier system was dissected and photo-documented. The left hepatic vein receives blood from the proventricle and gastric ventricle, while the right hepatic vein is responsible for the drainage of blood into the following organs: spleen, through the proventriculosplenic vein; pancreas, through the pancreaticoduodenal vein; jejunum, through the jejunum trunk; and the colon, which forms the cranial mesenteric vein. Resumo O avestruz (Struthio camelus, Linnaeus 1758) é a maior ave do mundo, com uma importância comercial acentuada na África e expandindo-se para diversos países. Assim, com o desenvolvimento dos sistemas de criação, tornam-se necessários estudos morfológicos que subsidiem as áreas aplicadas, pois a espécie apresenta características anatômicas próprias. O objetivo deste estudo foi a descrição dos principais afluentes da veia porta-hepática nesta espécie. Para a realização do presente trabalho, foram utilizadas dez vísceras de animais adultos, de ambos os sexos, que foram injetados com Neoprene látex por meio da veia porta-hepática para evidenciar os seus afluentes. Após a repleção vascular, os animais foram fixados e conservados em solução aquosa de formaldeído a 10%. O sistema porta-hepático foi dissecado e fotodocumentado. Observou-se que a veia porta-hepática esquerda recebe sangue da região do proventrículo e ventrículo gástrico. A veia porta-hepática direita é a responsável pela drenagem do sangue nos seguintes órgãos: baço, por meio da veia proventriculoesplênica, pâncreas, pela veia pancreaticoduonais, jejuno, por meio do tronco jejunal, e o cólon, que forma a veia mesentérica cranial.

Lawsonia intracellularis is the causative agent of proliferative enteropathy (PE) in pigs, a disease of economic importance worldwide. The present study aimed to investigate the occurrence of L. intracellularis in ostriches using a sensitive and specific nested polymerase chain reaction (nested PCR). A total number of 112 fecal samples (64 healthy, 48 diarrheic) were collected from 11 ostrich farms located in four provinces in Iran (Semnan, Tehran, Gilan, Yazd). The results showed the presence of L. intracellularis in three diarrheic and four apparently healthy birds. The frequency of positive results was the same in both groups (6.25% healthy vs. 6.25% diarrheic). Although the results of this study did not reveal any relationship between this organism and diarrhea (P > 0.05), the molecular detection of L. intracellularis on a farm where birds were suffering from the typical clinical symptoms of PE highlights the need for evaluation of PE in ratites.

1. Sex-related differences of long pelvic limb bones and serum bone metabolism indices were evaluated in 14-month-old female (N = 7) and male (N = 7) ostriches of similar body weights. 2. Densitometric parameters of femur, tibia and tarsometatarsus were determined using quantitative computed tomography (volumetric bone mineral density, calcium hydroxyapatite density and mean volumetric bone mineral density) and dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (bone mineral density and bone mineral content) methods. Geometrical parameters such as cortical bone area, cross-sectional area, second moment of inertia, mean relative wall thickness and cortical index were determined in the midshaft of bones. Mechanical properties of bones (maximum elastic strength and ultimate strength) were evaluated using three-point bending test. Serum concentrations of free amino acids, osteocalcin, N-terminal propeptide of type I procollagen, C-terminal telopeptides of type II collagen and total antioxidative capacity were also determined. 3. Bone weight and relative bone weight of all bones were significantly higher in males than in females. Significantly lower values of trabecular bone mineral density and calcium hydroxyapatite density were found in the trabecular bone of tibia in males. The highest number of the sex-related differences was observed in the tarsometatarsus where bone length, bone mineral content, cortical bone area, cross-sectional area and ultimate strength were higher in males. Serum concentrations of taurine, hydroxyproline, valine and isoleucine were significantly higher in males. 4. Higher loading of the tarsometatarsus in comparison to femur and tibia may be an important factor interacting with sex hormones in regulation of bone formation and mineralisation processes. Sex-related differences of bone properties were associated with increased serum concentration of selected amino acids in males.

Archaeological eggshell is a commonly recorded, yet underutilized material for understanding human-environment interaction in the past. In addition to the use of archaeological eggshell as a paleoenvironmental proxy, archaeologists have innovated important new approaches to the study of archaeological avian eggshell, including the application of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) for the characterization of eggshell microstructures. These studies have demonstrated the importance of eggshell for understanding how ancient communities exploited and interacted with avifauna. In this paper, we build on these methodological advances by testing new approaches to image avian eggshell and characterizing complex eggshell surface microstructures. We demonstrate the utility of capturing high-resolution 3-dimensional (3D) eggshell surfaces using advanced imaging modalities (optical profilometry, scanning electron microscopy, digital microscopy, computed tomography), to model changes in eggshell microstructures that are correlated with ontogeny. Using the Common Ostrich (Struthio camelus) as our model system, we introduce a statistical modeling approach to predict the ontogenetic age of ratite eggshell using roughness measurements of 3D features. Successful prediction of ontogenetic age has great potential to reveal archaeological patterns of human exploitation of avian eggs. These findings further illustrate the importance of archaeological eggshell for investigating human-environment interactions, emphasizing the need for archaeologists to use field methods (hand/trowel excavation and fine mesh screen) that facilitate eggshell recovery.

The aim of this study was to develop a detailed and accessible set of reference images of the normal radiographic anatomy of the digits of the ostrich (Struthio camelus), with emphasis on the metatarsophalangeal joint and its arthrography. The distal excised pelvic limbs of 10 normal ostriches of different ages (ranging from 10 to 365 days of age) obtained from an abattoir were radiographed, and 2 arthrograms were performed. To illustrate the normal radiographic anatomy of the tarsometatarsal bone, 39 images were selected, labelled, and presented along with detailed descriptions and corresponding images of the bony skeleton. These results provide a valuable dataset to assist in understanding the normal anatomy of the ostrich metatarsophalangeal joint and digits and allow comparison of abnormal corresponding structures in clinical cases in ostriches.

A specialized region of the bill tip characterized by a complex arrangement of mechanoreceptors and referred to as a bill tip organ, has been identified in numerous avians. A bill tip organ was initially inferred in kiwi species by the presence of numerous, bony pits in the rostrum of the bill, and later confirmed histologically. This study enumerates and compares the number and distribution of pits present in the bill tip in the ostrich and emu. The heads from 10 ostrich and 5 emu were prepared for osteological examination. The pattern and total number of pits was similar between the two species. However, the ostrich had significantly more pits in the regions underlying the Culmen and Gonys, whereas the emu displayed significantly more pits in the dorsal part of the mandibular rostrum. The relatively even distribution of pits in the inner and outer surfaces of both the mandibular and maxillary rostra suggest that the bill tip of the ostrich and emu are equally sensitive externally and intra-orally, as opposed to probing birds, where the major concentration of pits is located on the outer surfaces of the bill tips. The presence of pits in the bill tips of extant paleaognaths may be of relevance in interpreting the pits in the rostra of extinct therapod dinosaurs. The presence of bony pits in a region which is also well supplied with sensory nerves is highly suggestive of a bill tip organ in the ostrich and emu and which needs to be confirmed histologically. Anat Rec, 300:1705-1715, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Twelve Mycoplasma (M.) strains isolated from the nose, the trachea, and the lung of ostriches (Struthio camelus) displaying respiratory disease were investigated. Analysis of 16S rRNA gene sequences placed five of these strains within the M. synoviae cluster, and seven strains within the M. hominis cluster of genus Mycoplasma, which was further confirmed by analyses of the 16S-23S rRNA intergenic spacer region, and partial rpoB gene and amino acid sequences. Genomic information as well as phenotypic features obtained by matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time of flight (MALDI-ToF) mass spectrometry analysis and serological reactions indicated that the strains examined are representatives of two hitherto unclassified species of genus Mycoplasma, for which the names Mycoplasma nasistruthionis sp. nov., with type strain 2F1AT (= ATCC BAA-1893T = DSM 22456T), and Mycoplasma struthionis sp. nov., with type strain 237IAT (= ATCC BAA-1890T = DSM 22453T), are proposed.

In rapidly growing animals there are numerous selective pressures and developmental constraints underpinning the ontogenetic development of muscle-tendon morphology and mechanical properties. Muscle force generating capacity, tendon stiffness, elastic energy storage capacity and efficiency were calculated from muscle and tendon morphological parameters and in-vitro tendon mechanical properties, obtained from a growth series of ostrich cadavers. Ontogenetic scaling relationships were established using reduced major axis regression analysis. Ostrich pelvic limb muscle mass and cross-sectional area broadly scaled with positive allometry, indicating maintained or relatively greater capacity for maximum isometric force generation in bigger animals. The length of distal limb tendons was found to scale with positive allometry in several tendons associated with antigravity support and elastic energy storage during locomotion. Distal limb tendon stiffness scaled with negative allometry with respect to body mass, with tendons being relatively more compliant in larger birds. Tendon material properties also appeared to be size-dependent, suggesting the relative increased compliance of tendons in larger ostriches is due in part to compensatory distortions in tendon material properties during maturation and development, not simply from ontogenetic changes in tendon geometry. Our results suggest that the previously reported increase in locomotor economy through ontogeny in the ostrich is likely due to greater potential for elastic energy storage with increasing body size. In fact, the rate of this increase may be somewhat greater than the conservative predictions of previous studies thus illustrating the biological importance of elastic tendon structures in adult ostriches.

Ostrich (Struthio camelus) is a species belonging to the Struthionidae family of Struthioniformes order that does not have the flying ability among birds. The aim of this study was to make a subgross investigation on anatomical structures of middle ear in ostrich and to determine the morphometry of the columella. In the present study, 4 adult ostrich heads were used in the study. Tympanic cavity and the formations inside are removed from the skull by protecting the cranial roof. Subgross examinations of tympanic cavity, columella and other anatomic structures were then performed, and morphometric measurements of columella and some anatomical structures were performed using a digital calliper.It was determined that tympanic cavity, surrounded by ear capsule (os oticum), had a conical shape and was covered with mucosa that was tightly adjacent to the periosteum. Tympanic membrane, columella and osteochondral structures, ligaments, a branch of external ophthalmic artery and the presence of chorda tympani were detected in tympanic cavity. It was observed that columella was placed diagonally in tympanic cavity. The vestibular (proximal) end having a circular shape was found to have a large basis and annular ligament which ended up with thickened, small columns. Finally, we demonstrated anatomy and morphometric values of middle ear in ostrich. The anatomy and formations of the middle ear are clearly shown. It can be asserted that anatomical formations in the middle ear of an ostrich are similar to other birds.

In 2011, the commercial ostrich production industry of South Africa experienced an outbreak of highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI), subtype H5N2. Surveillance using antibody and antigen detection revealed 42 infected farms with a between-farm prevalence in the affected area of 16%. The outbreak was controlled using depopulation of infected farms, resulting in the direct loss of 10% of the country's domestic ostrich population. Various factors in the ostrich production system were observed that could have contributed to the spread of the virus between farms, including the large number of legal movements of ostriches between farms, access of wild birds to ostrich camps and delays in depopulation of infected farms. Negative effects on the ostrich industry and the local economy of the ostrich-producing area were observed as a result of the outbreak and the disease control measures applied. Prevention and control measures applied as a result of avian influenza in South Africa were informed by this large outbreak and the insights into epidemiology of avian influenza in ostriches that it provided, resulting in stricter biosecurity measures required on every registered ostrich farm in the country.

The hyoid bone of the ostrich was divided into two parts; basihyoid and horns. The basihyoid consisted of three components; paraglossal, basihayle and urohyale. The paraglossal was unpaired,lay within the tongue parenchyma.On the other hand; the basihaylewas flat and octagonalcontinuing caudally by urohyale, which was stick like, compressed laterally.It reached at the first six trachea ringslevel. On the other hand, the horns included two pairs: ceratobranchiale and epibranchiale. The ceratobranchiale horn was ossified, concave and the longest one. It had bulges extremities for articulates with the basihayle proximally and epibranchiale horn distally, while the epibranchiale horn was cartilagenous structure, shorter than the ceratobranchiale and its end was tapered. The hyoid bone of the ostrich was firmly attached to the tongue, larynx,trachea and the cervical muscculature tissue and all underlying structures by the connective tissue.

The ostrich is the largest living bird and has unique characteristics in its locomotor system that differentiate it from other bird species. The purpose of this study was to provide a reference atlas of reference-interval computed tomography (CT) and cross-sectional anatomy of the tarsometatarsal region and digits in the ostrich (Struthio camelus). The pelvic limbs of 25 ostriches were used for this imaging study. The transverse CT images were obtained from the middle third of the tarsometatarsal bone to the distal end of the third digit. The specimens were frozen and sectioned with an electric band saw at 1.5-2 cm intervals. The CT images were compared with the corresponding frozen cross sections. The bones, ligaments, and tendons were identified and labeled at each 1.5-2 cm intervals. The CT images provided anatomic details of the tendons and ligaments in the tarsometatarsal region and digits of the ostrich. The transverse CT images provided an excellent depiction of the anatomic structures of the leg and foot when compared with the corresponding frozen cross sections. The information presented in this study may be used as an initial reference when evaluating the CT images of an ostrich's tarsometatarsal region and digits. Moreover, the information provided in this report may be helpful in determining definitive diagnoses of musculoskeletal disorders affecting the lower leg in this species.

H9N2 subtype avian influenza viruses (AIVs) have been isolated from various species of wild birds and domestic poultry in the world, and occasionally transmitted to humans. Although H9N2 AIVs are seldom isolated from ostriches, seven such strains were isolated from sick ostriches in China between 2013 and 2014. Sequence analysis showed several amino acid changes relating to viral adaptation in mammals were identified. The phylogenetic analyses indicated that these isolates were quadruple reassortant viruses, which are different from the early ostrich isolates from South Africa or Israel. Most of the ostrich virus carried a human-type receptor-binding property. The chicken experiments showed the ostrich strains displayed low pathogenicity, while they could cause mild to severe symptoms in chicken. Theses strains could efficiently transmit among chickens, and one strain showed higher transmissibility. The virus could not kill mice, and merely replicated in the lung of mice. The ostrich strains could not efficiently transmit between guinea pigs in the direct contact model. These results suggested we should pay attention to the interface between ostrich and other domestic fowl, and keep an eye on this population when monitoring of influenza virus.

The behavioural patterns of six captive ostriches (Struthio camelus) were studied at Universiti Malaysia Kelantan, Bachok Campus between July and September 2014. The main purpose of the study was to determine the behavioural patterns of ostriches in captivity to provide the useful information for better management action. The ostriches were observed daily for 11 hours from 0700 hrs until 1800 hrs for 45 days by using the focal sampling technique. Six categories of behavioural patterns were observed namely resting, locomotion, ingestive, comfort, aggression and thermoregulation. The highest behaviour observed was walking compared to other behaviours, while the lowest was running. The result of the study showed a significant difference of behavioural patterns of captive ostriches between different observational periods except for locomotion and aggression behaviours. The finding of the study showed that ostriches reared in captivity possessed similar behavioural patterns to those remaining in the wild, although some captive circumstances imposed minor differences.

This study, facilitated by the use of immunohistochemistry, indicated the presence of taste buds in Dromaius novaehollandiae but not in Struthio camelus. Seen at the light microscope level, the taste buds consisted of follicular cells and receptor cells. The follicular cells were located at the periphery of the taste bud, essentially encapsulating the receptor cells. Two morphologically distinct receptor cells were identified. Immunohistochemical labelling for neurofilament identified gustatory nerves within the taste bud. The distribution of taste buds in D. novaehollandiae matched strategic locations in the oropharynx along which food could be sampled, according to the feeding method described for these birds. Future feeding studies would be necessary in D. novaehollandiae to determine the importance of taste discrimination in their diet. This study represents the first confirmed report of a sense of taste in any ratite species.

The objective of this study was to investigate the morphological features of the proventriculus of African ostrich (Struthio camelus). The location, appearance, and histological characteristics of the proventriculus were observed on postnatal day 90. The entire proventriculus had the appearance of a distensible sac; and exhibited a large number of glands. Under light microscope, the proventriculus wall was composed of mucosa, submucosa, muscular layer and adventitia. The mucosa was further divided into the lamina epithelialis, lamina propria, and muscularis mucosae. The submucosa was relatively thick and contained compound tubular glands having oxynticopeptic cells, mucous cells, and endocrine cells. These features of the proventriculus are possibly related to the dietary habits of the African ostrich, and they imply that this specie has a strong ability to digest and absorb food.

Flexor tendons function as energy storage and shock absorption structures in the tarsometatarso-phalangeal joint (TMTPJ) of ostrich feet during high-speed and heavy-load locomotion. In this study, mechanisms underlying the energy storage and shock absorption of three flexor tendons of the third toe were studied using histology and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Macroscopic and microscopic structures of the flexor tendons in different positions of TMTPJ were analyzed. Histological slices showed collagen fiber bundles of all flexor tendons in the middle TMTPJ were arranged in a linear-type, but in the proximal and distal TMTPJ, a wavy-type arrangement was found in the tendon of the M. flexor digitorum longus and tendon of the M. flexor perforans et perforatus digiti III, while no regular-type was found in the tendon of the M. flexor perforatus digiti III. SEM showed that the collagen fiber bundles of flexor tendons were arranged in a hierarchically staggered way (horizontally linear-type and vertically linear-type). Linear-type and wavy-type both existed in the proximal TMTPJ for the collagen fiber bundles of the tendon of the M. flexor perforatus digiti III, but only the linear-type was found in the distal TMTPJ. A number of fibrils were distributed among the collagen fiber bundles, which were likely effective in connection, force transmission and other functions. The morphology and arrangement of collagen fiber bundles were closely related to the tendon functions. We present interpretations of the biological functions in different positions and types of the tendons in the TMTPJ of the ostrich feet.

The distribution of Herbst corpuscles in the oropharynx of the ostrich and emu has recently been documented. However, although the morphology of these mechanoreceptors is well known in neognathous birds, little structural information is available on the Herbst corpuscles of ratites. Tissue sections from those regions of the oropharynx known to possess a high concentration of Herbst corpuscles were sampled from ostrich and emu heads collected after slaughter and prepared for light and transmission electron microscopy. Intra-oral Herbst corpuscles in the ostrich and emu displayed the same basic components (capsule, outer zone, inner core and axon) described in neognathous birds. However, some important differences were observed, notably, the presence of myofibroblasts in the capsule, sensory cilia in cells of the outer layers, a relatively larger, less organized outer zone and narrower inner core, and variations in the shape of the axon. The previously unreported presence of myofibroblasts in the capsule possibly indicates its ability to contract, thus altering the tension of the capsule, which in turn has implications for the conduction of vibrational stimuli. The sensory cilia in the myofibroblasts of the capsule bordering the outer zone, and in the fibroblasts of the outer zone itself, may play a regulatory role in controlling the contraction of the capsule. Such a function has not previously been reported for Herbst corpuscles in any species of bird. Anat Rec, 298:783–796, 2015. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Commercial ostrich farming is constrained by the absence of a formal animal recording and evaluation scheme as well as by current farming practices. Artificial insemination may have an important role in overcoming these limitations, but requires a thorough knowledge of sperm morphology. Although the morphological characteristics of normal ostrich sperm have been documented, little information is available on the incidence and structural peculiarities of defective sperm in this species. Semen smears were prepared from the ejaculates of five ostriches (Struthio camelus), stained and evaluated. Defects were observed in 17% of sperm studied. Tail defects constituted the most common anomaly. Various forms of bending were the main tail defect, ranging from gentle to acute bends of the principal piece, Dag-like coiling at the head base, sharp reflexes of the midpiece as well as coiling of the endpiece. In contrast, head defects were comparatively low in frequency, with macrocephalic sperm being the defect most frequently observed in this region. Bent, microcephalic, acephalic and round sperm heads were also noted but were few in number. Cytoplasmic droplets occurred frequently in the fixed smears, either associated with the sperm or as free-lying droplets. A small percentage of sperm with multiple defects was recorded. The incidence of morphologically normal sperm in ostrich semen compared favorably with that reported in emu semen, another commercially farmed ratite. However, the range of defects differed appreciably between the two species. Sperm tail anomalies were the most frequent category in the ostrich, whereas head defects comprised the main grouping in the emu.

1. Feeding costs are the largest expense in an ostrich production system, and protein is one of the more expensive components of the diet. This study evaluated the growth response of ostrich chicks on diets containing different concentrations of protein (amino acids). The diets were formulated to contain three concentrations of protein (one diet with 20% less protein than the conventional concentration, L; one diet with the conventional concentration of protein, M and one diet with 20% more protein than the conventional concentration, H) for each of the phase diets. The phase diets were pre-starter, starter, grower and finisher. 2. This study includes the analysis of ostrich body weight (BW) by modelling growth with linear polynomial and non-linear functions for all the data not separated for treatments. In total, 3378 BW recordings of 90 animals were collected weekly from hatch (d 0) to 287 d (41 weeks) of age. 3. Seven non-linear growth models and three linear polynomial models were fitted to the data. The growth functions were compared by using Akaike's information criterion (AIC). For the non-linear models, the Bridges and Janoschek models had the lowest AIC values for the H treatment, while the Richards curve had the lowest value for M and the von Bertalanffy for the L treatment. 4. For the linear polynomial models, the linear polynomial of the third degree had the lowest AIC values for all three treatments, thus making it the most suitable model for the data; therefore, the predictions of this model were used to interpret the growth data. Significant differences were found between treatments for growth data. 5. The results from this study can aid in describing the growth of ostriches subjected to optimum feeding conditions. This information can also be used in research when modelling the nutrient requirements of growing birds.

Herbst corpuscles are widely distributed throughout the oropharynx of the ostrich and emu in contrast to the general situation in birds. Knowledge of the comparative distribution of Herbst corpuscles in the oropharynx of these two commercially important ratite species may assist in a better understanding of their feeding habits. Tissue sections representing all parts of the oropharynx of five ostrich and five emu heads collected after slaughter were prepared for light microscopy, the Herbst corpuscles counted, and the relative percentage of corpuscles calculated for defined anatomical regions. Herbst corpuscles were more widespread in the oropharynx of the emu (where they were additionally found in the tongue and laryngeal mound) than in the ostrich but were absent from the pharyngeal folds in both species. The results further indicated that Herbst corpuscles were strategically located to aid in the handling and transport of food. In this context, the high concentration of Herbst corpuscles in the prominent median palatine and ventral ridges in the ostrich denote these structures as sensory organs, namely the palatal and interramal organs. The presence of these sensory organs, coupled with the higher relative percentage of Herbst corpuscles located on the rostral oropharyngeal floor, indicate that the part of the oropharynx caudal to the mandibular and maxillary rostra forms an important sensory region in the ostrich. Additionally, species-specific concentrations of Herbst corpuscles within the oropharynx were identified which appear to assist in the accurate positioning of the tongue and laryngeal mound for cleaning the choana (internal nares) after swallowing.

The effect of rooibos tea extract (RBTE 0%, 0.25%, 0.50%, 1.00%) as a natural antioxidant on the lipid and protein stability of ostrich droëwors (traditional South African dried sausage) after a 15 day drying period was investigated. The lipid stability of the droëwors increased with 0.25% RBTE having lower TBARS. The protein stability of the droëwors did not differ (P≥0.05) between treatments. The heme-iron content did not differ (P≥0.05) between the treatments and increased from day 0 to day 15. Drying resulted in a decrease in the total moisture content by 45% and a corresponding increase in all other components. There were no differences between the moisture, fat and ash contents between treatments within a specific day. The droëwors had high concentrations of oleic acid, palmitic acid and linoleic acid. The addition of RBTE also improved the sensory attributes and can thus be added and marketed as a natural flavourant from 'out of Africa' for a traditional South African meat product.

Sperm macrocephaly syndrome (SMS) is characterised by a high percentage of spermatozoa with enlarged heads and multiple tails, and is related to infertility. Although this multiple sperm defect has been described in other mammalian species, little is known about this anomaly in birds. Morphological examination of semen from nine South African black ostriches (Struthio camelus var. domesticus) involved in an AI trial revealed the variable presence of spermatozoa with large heads and multiple tails. Ultrastructural features of the defect were similar to those reported in mammals except that the multiple tails were collectively bound within the plasmalemma. The tails were of similar length and structure to those of normal spermatozoa, and the heads were 1.6-fold longer, emphasising the uniformity of the anomaly across vertebrate species. Flow cytometry identified these cells as diploid and computer-aided sperm analysis revealed that they swim slower but straighter than normal spermatozoa, probably due to the increased drag of the large head and constrained movement of the merged multiple tails. The high incidence of this defect in one male ostrich indicates that, although rare, SMS can occur in birds and may potentially have an adverse effect on breeding programs, particularly for endangered species.

The husbandry and medical records, and necropsy reports, of 1,002 captive Struthioniformes that died at the Réserve Africaine de Sigean (France) from 1974 to 2015 were examined. The goal of this study was to determine the most common causes of mortality in ostriches ( Struthio camelus), emus ( Dromaius novaehollandiae), and American rheas ( Rhea americana), in order to highlight common causes of mortality, as well as the influence of age, gender, and rearing methods on mortality. The most prevalent cause of mortality was pathology of digestive origin in the neonates of all three species, especially yolk-sac infections, which accounted for 41% of all deaths in this captive neonate population and was especially prevalent in hand-reared neonates. Other causes included musculoskeletal disorders in emus (particularly hand-reared) and rheas; trauma in neonate ostriches, mainly due to crushing by parents; leg deformities in emu chicks and juveniles; general sepsis in hand-reared ratite chicks due to a chlamydiosis outbreaks (1989-1990); trauma by conspecifics in subadult ostriches and emus; stress myopathy in subadult rheas, particularly after introduction to a new enclosure; evisceration inflicted by herbivorous enclosure mates on adult male ostriches; fatal peritonitis following salpingitis in adult female ostriches; and death associated with ocular disorder in adult male emus. Although this study was conducted at one institution, and its results reflect this zoo's management and zootechnical practices, its findings could well have implications for management practices involving other captive Struthioniforme populations.

Normal haematopoiesis, cellular components and M/E ratio in the bone marrow of the male adult ostriches (Struthio camelus)were studied. Bone marrow samples were collected from the proximal tibiotarsus bone of 10 healthy adult ostriches. The bone marrow smears were stained using the Giemsa stain. The results indicated that the development and formation of blood cells in the bone marrow of partridge were similar to other birds. The morphology of the cells was similar to chickens, ducks, quail, and black-head gull. The mean myeloid/erythroid (M/E) ratio was 1.02, the mean erythroid percentage was 47.38%, the mean myeloid percentage was 48.15%, the mean thrombocytic percentage was 3.52% and the mean percentage of all other cells percentage was 0.99%

Background The ostrich Struthio camelus reaches the highest speeds of any extant biped, and has been an extraordinary subject for studies of soft-tissue anatomy and dynamics of locomotion. An elongate tarsometatarsus in adult ostriches contributes to their speed. The internal osteology of the tarsometatarsus, and its mechanical response to forces of running, are potentially revealing about ostrich foot function. Methods/Principal Findings Computed tomography (CT) reveals anatomy and bone densities in tarsometatarsi of an adult and a young juvenile ostrich. A finite element (FE) model for the adult was constructed with properties of compact and cancellous bone where these respective tissues predominate in the original specimen. The model was subjected to a quasi-static analysis under the midstance ground reaction and muscular forces of a fast run. Anatomy–Metatarsals are divided proximally and distally and unify around a single internal cavity in most adult tarsometatarsus shafts, but the juvenile retains an internal three-part division of metatarsals throughout the element. The juvenile has a sparsely ossified hypotarsus for insertion of the m. fibularis longus, as part of a proximally separate third metatarsal. Bone is denser in all regions of the adult tarsometatarsus, with cancellous bone concentrated at proximal and distal articulations, and highly dense compact bone throughout the shaft. Biomechanics–FE simulations show stress and strain are much greater at midshaft than at force applications, suggesting that shaft bending is the most important stressor of the tarsometatarsus. Contraction of digital flexors, inducing a posterior force at the TMT distal condyles, likely reduces buildup of tensile stresses in the bone by inducing compression at these locations, and counteracts bending loads. Safety factors are high for von Mises stress, consistent with faster running speeds known for ostriches. Conclusions/Significance High safety factors suggest that bone densities and anatomy of the ostrich tarsometatarsus confer strength for selectively critical activities, such as fleeing and kicking predators. Anatomical results and FE modeling of the ostrich tarsometatarsus are a useful baseline for testing the structure’s capabilities and constraints for locomotion, through ontogeny and the full step cycle. With this foundation, future analyses can incorporate behaviorally realistic strain rates and distal joint forces, experimental validation, and proximal elements of the ostrich hind limb.

Ten blue-neck male ostriches (Struthio camelus) were fed Prosopis farcta beans throughout a 30-day experiment. Blood samples were collected from ostriches on days 0 and 30 to measure levels of high-density lipoprotein (HDL) cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, triglyceride, total serum protein, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, calcium, inorganic phosphorus, the activity of aspartate aminotransferase, alanine aminotransferase, and γ-glutamyl transferase (γ-GT). From days 0 to 30, HDL cholesterol, total protein, and globulins levels increased significantly whereas LDL cholesterol, inorganic phosphorus, and γ-GT activity decreased significantly.

SUMMARY Recent studies have presented range of motion (ROM) data in degrees for dinosaur forelimb joints, usually via physical manipulation of one individual. Using these data, researchers have inferred limb orientations, postures, gaits, ecological functions and even phylogenetic trends within clades. However, important areas of concern remain unaddressed; for example, how does ROM at a forelimb joint change after soft tissues are lost in archosaurs? And are fossil ROM methodologies amenable to reproducibility and statistical analysis? Here, we investigated these questions using the extant phylogenetic bracket of dinosaurs. Repeated measures of elbow joint ROM from Struthio camelus and Alligator mississippiensis forelimbs were statistically analyzed as they were sequentially dissected through five levels of tissue removal treatment. Our data indicate that there are no statistically significant differences in repeated measures of ROM between observers who use the same techniques. Extrinsic soft tissues, such as integument, muscles and ligaments were found to impede ROM at the elbow joint. Intrinsic soft tissues, such as articular cartilage, may increase ROM. The hypothesis that the articular surfaces of the bones within the elbow joints of archosaurs provide a general approximation of mobility is supported. Final ROMs were less than the initial ROMs in both taxa, which suggests that prior reports of elbow joint ROMs in degrees for nonavian dinosaurs may represent conservative estimates. We conclude that if observer bias and other variables are controlled for, ROM studies of fossil archosaur limbs can obtain useful degree data for inferring joint mobility in vivo.

The purpose of this study was to establish normal physiologic reference values for intraocular pressure (IOP) and Schirmer tear test (STT) results in clinically normal ostriches (Struthio camelus). Twenty ostriches of both sexes, 10 juveniles (1.5-2 yr of age) and 10 adults, were included in this study. Complete ophthalmic examination was performed prior to this investigation. STT was performed by inserting a standard sterile STT strip over the ventral lid margin into the ventral conjunctival sac for 60 sec. Following the STT, IOP was measured using applanation tonometry with the Tono-Pen Vet tonometer after topical instillation of one drop of 0.5% proparacaine ophthalmic solution. The mean +/- SD and range of Tono-Pen readings of IOP for all birds was 18.8 +/- 3.5, with a range of 12-24. Mean IOP in juvenile ostriches was 19.7 +/- 3.6. Mean IOP in adult ostriches was 16.9 +/- 2.9. There was no statistically significant difference between young and adult birds (P = 0.07). The mean STT values in the present study were 16.3 +/- 2.5 mm/1 min when measurements from both eyes were averaged. Mean STT in juvenile and adult ostriches was 15.4 +/- 1.8 and 17.2 +/- 2.9 mm/1 min, respectively. There was no statistically significant difference between young and adult birds (P = 0.11). No statistically significant differences between genders were found for any of the results (Por = 0.41). In conclusion, this study provides normal reference range values for STT and IOP in clinically healthy ostriches.

This study was conducted to determine the presence of enterobacteria in the eggs of ostriches reared on a farm with a history of reproductive failure. Ninety samples from twenty eggs were submitted to bacteriological tests. The results showed Enterobacteria growth in 100% of the eggs. The microorganisms isolated were Hafnia alvei in 50% (10/20), Serratia spp. in 20% (4/20), Escherichia coli in 15% (3/20), and Citrobacter freundii in 15% (3/20). All eggs presented poor eggshell quality, which favored enterobacteria contamination. Hafnia alvei was present only in the internal egg structures (albumen and yolk sac), suggesting the possibility of vertical infection.

1. Over three breeding seasons on a farm in Poland, semen was collected from 11 ostriches using the dummy and the teaser method to study the effects of the method of collection, male age, month in the breeding season, and daily collection frequency on ejaculate characteristics. 2. A total of 259 ejaculates were collected, with an average volume of 1·28 ± 0·6 (±SEM) ml. Sperm concentration was 3·34 ± 0·08 × 10(9)/ml, the total number of spermatozoa 4·32 ± 0·22 × 10(9), and motility 4·56 ± 0·04. 3. There was no difference in ejaculates collected by the dummy and teaser methods, but the between-individual variation was considerable. Ejaculate characteristics increased with male age and varied between months, with little evidence for seasonal decline. Daily collections for 10 days did not affect sperm output. 4. The results open up avenues for further research on development of a viable protocol for artificial insemination in ostriches and efficient semen storage. 5. The between-male variation suggests that the ejaculate output could be maximized through selection.

Ostriches are susceptible to a wide variety of diseases that can affect their commercial breeding. The aim of this study was to identify morphologically Codiostomum struthionis and examine its seasonal occurrence among animals of three age categories in two commercial farms in Areal and Itaboraí, State of Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Fresh fecal samples were collected monthly, from June 2004 to May 2006. Eggs per gram of feces (EPG) were counted after centrifugal flotation in saturated sugar solutions and infective larvae were evaluated after coproculture. A total of 432 fecal samples were collected from three groups according to ostrich age: up to 90 days, 91-365 days and over 365 days (adults). The dry and rainy seasons were defined according to official meteorological data. Typical eggs of the Strongylida order were identified in 242 samples (235 from adult ostriches). Once obtained, infective larvae were identified as C. struthionis. Adult ostriches exhibited significantly greater numbers of eggs in their feces during the rainy season compared to the dry season (p0.05). In the Areal farm, significant (p0.05) values were found when adults ostriches EPG were compared to ostriches up to 90 days and also for ostriches from 91 to 365 days. When comparing adult EPGs between the two commercial breeding farms, Areal exhibited greater EPGs during both the dry (p=0.0215) and rainy (p=0.0011) seasons.

The erection mechanism of the penis in most vertebrates is blood vascular. A major evolutionary transition occurred in birds, where the erection mechanism changed from blood vascular to lymphatic. Within birds, however, the erection mechanism of the ratite penis has remained unknown. Early work suggested that the erection mechanism in ostrich Struthio camelus was blood vascular while no description existed for the emu Dromaius novaehollandiae or the rhea Rhea americana. Because the penis in all other described birds has a lymphatic erection mechanism, clarifying that the erection mechanism of ratites is of great importance to understanding one of the major evolutionary transitions of penis morphology within amniotes. Here, we show that the erection mechanism of ratites is lymphatic, confirming that the evolutionary transition to lymphatic erection occurred in the last common ancestor of Aves.

The ostrich foot has four digital pads, two on the 3rd digit, one on the 4th digit and one at metatarsophalangeal joint. Although these footpads are essential for long distance locomotion of the ostrich, no published data is available on the structure of these footpads. Therefore, the aim of this study is to examine the histo-morphological structure of these footpads in an attempt to highlight their structural functional adaptation for long distance motion. Morphologically, the ventral surface of each footpad is covered by numerous papillae which are varied in direction, length and thickness. In histological examination, the epidermis of the footpad consists of outer stratum corneum and inner stratum germinativum (which is subdivided into basal, intermediate and transitional layers). The stratum corneum has several layers of flattened horney cells. The nuclei of the basal cells have several mitotic figures. The cytoplasm of the stratum germinativum cells has multiple lipid droplets and multigranular bodies (in transitional cells only). Using scanning electron microscope, the collagen fibers in the mid and deep dermis of the footpad run parallel and connect to each other by very thin fibrils which are branched, crossed with each other in an oblique direction. Such arrangement of these collagen fibers and thin fibrils and presence of digital cushion are likely to be responsible for absorption of concussion and hence acceleration of the ostrich movement. We have concluded that ostrich footpads have unique modified structures which are adapted for long distance movement and protection of the underlying soft tissues.