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Background Affective dysregulation (AD), or synonymously "irritability," is a transdiagnostic construct that serves as a diagnostic criterion in various childhood mental disorders. It is characterized by severe or persistent outbursts of anger and aggression. Emotional self-regulation is highly dependent on the ability to process relevant and ignore conflicting emotional information. Understanding neurophysiological mechanisms underlying impairment in AD may provide a starting point for research on pharmacological treatment options and evaluation of psychotherapeutic intervention. Methods A total of 120 children 8 to 12 years of age (63 with AD and 57 typically developing) were examined using an emotional Stroop task. Signal-decomposed electroencephalographic recordings providing information about the affected sensory–perceptual, response selection, or motor information processing stage were combined with source localization. Results Behavioral performance revealed dysfunctional cognitive-emotional conflict monitoring in children with AD, suggesting difficulties in differentiating between conflicting and nonconflicting cognitive-emotional information. This was confirmed by the electroencephalographic data showing that they cannot intensify response selection processes during conflicting cognitive-emotional situations. Typically developing children were able to do so and activated a functional–neuroanatomical network comprising the left inferior parietal cortex (Brodmann area 40), right middle frontal (Brodmann area 10), and right inferior/orbitofrontal (Brodmann area 47) regions. Purely sensory–perceptual selection and motor execution processes were not modulated in AD, as evidenced by Bayesian analyses. Conclusions Behavioral and electroencephalogram data suggest that children with AD cannot adequately modulate controlled response selection processes given emotionally ambiguous information. Which neurotransmitter systems underlie these deficits and how they can be improved are important questions for future research.

OBJECTIVE Lack of test norms is a major limitation in neuropsychological assessment in many non-English-speaking countries. Our objective was to generate sex-, age-, and education-adjusted, regression-based norms for three pen-and-paper-based executive function/working memory tests, viz. Victoria Stroop Test (VST), Digit Span, and Verbal Fluency, for Sinhala-Speaking Sri Lankan adults. METHOD Six-hundred and six healthy, community-living, Sinhala-speaking adults (273 men) aged 19-83 years completed VST, Digit Span (forward and backward), and Phonemic (Sinhala phonemes "N," "P," and "S") and Category (animals and vegetables) Fluency tests. We conducted multiple linear regression analyses with sex, age, and years of education fitted as predictors to model the test outcome variables. RESULTS Younger age was associated with better performance in all tests except in Phonemic Fluency. Longer education was associated with better performance in all outcomes except VST errors and interference. Women had a significant but small advantage over men in VST Neutral and Color Word tests, and Phonemic Fluency. We report regression equations to predict norms for the test performance measures based on sex, age, and years of education; and the test variances accounted by these factors. CONCLUSIONS We propose demographically adjusted norms for VST, Digit Span, and Verbal Fluency for Sinhala-speaking Sri Lankans aged 19-83 years, and supplement the regression formulae with a calculator that produces predicted and standard scores. These norms would help in interpreting the results of clinical samples in the future, taking into account the variability introduced by sex, age, and education.

Purpose We aimed to investigate the link of vitamin C status with vitality and psychological functions in a cross-sectional study, and examine their causal relationship through a randomized controlled trial (RCT). Methods We first conducted a population-based cross-sectional investigation of healthy young adults (n = 214, 20–39 years), and analyzed the associations of serum vitamin C concentrations with vitality (fatigue and attention) and mood status (stress, depression, and positive and negative affect) using Pearson’s correlation and multiple linear regression analyses. Next, we performed a double-blind RCT in healthy subjects whose serum vitamin C concentrations were inadequate (n = 24) or a placebo (n = 22). We assessed vitality, which included fatigue, attention, work engagement, and self-control resources, and measured mood status, including stress, depression, positive and negative affect, and anxiety. ELISA determined serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), and a Stroop color–word test evaluated attention capacity and processing speed. Results In the cross-sectional data, the serum vitamin C concentration was positively associated with the level of attention (r = 0.16, p = 0.02; standardized β = 0.21, p = 0.003), while no significant associations with the levels of fatigue and mood variables being found. In the RCT, compared to the placebo, the vitamin C supplementation significantly increased attention (p = 0.03) and work absorption (p = 0.03) with distinct tendency of improvement on fatigue (p = 0.06) and comprehensive work engagement (p = 0.07). The vitamin C supplementation did not affect mood and serum concentrations of BDNF. However, in the Stroop color–word test, the subjects supplemented with vitamin C showed better performance than those in the placebo group (p = 0.04). Conclusion Inadequate vitamin C status is related to a low level of mental vitality. Vitamin C supplementation effectively increased work motivation and attentional focus and contributed to better performance on cognitive tasks requiring sustained attention. Trial registration number and date of registration Cross-sectional study: KCT0005074 (cris.nih.go.kr)/1 June, 2020 (retrospectively registered). Intervention study: KCT0004276 (cris.nih.go.kr)/4 September, 2019.

The amygdala is a medial temporal lobe structure known to be involved in processing emotional conflict. However, its role in processing non-emotional conflict is not well understood. Previous studies have utilized the Stroop Task to examine brain modulation of humans under the color-word conflict scenario, which is non-emotional conflict processing, and found hippocampal theta-band (4-7 Hz) modulation. This study aims to survey amygdaloid theta power changes during non-emotional conflict processing using intracranial depth electrodes in nine epileptic patients (3 female; age 20-62). All patients were asked to perform a modified Stroop task. During task performance, local field potential (LFP) data was recorded from macro contacts sampled at 2 K Hz and used for analysis. Mean theta power change from baseline was compared between the incongruent and congruent task condition groups using a paired sample t-test. Seven patients were available for analysis after artifact exclusion. In five out of seven patients, statistically significant increases in theta-band power from baseline were noted during the incongruent task condition (paired sample t-test p 0.001), including one patient exhibiting theta power increases in both task conditions. Average response time was 1.07 s (failure trials) and 1.04 s (success trials). No speed-accuracy tradeoff was noted in this analysis. These findings indicate that human amygdaloid theta-band modulation may play a role in processing non-emotional conflict. It builds directly upon work suggesting that the amygdala processes emotional conflict and provides a neurophysiological mechanism for non-emotional conflict processing as well.

Background: Mind-body exercise is used for the rehabilitation of individuals with methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Attention bias to substances is an important index of MUD. However, whether a mind-body exercise intervention can decrease attention bias is unclear.Objective: This study aimed to test the effect of a four-week Tai Chi (a Chinese traditional mind-body exercise) exercise program on the attention bias of individuals with MUD.Methods: Thirty-two men with MUD and without Tai Chi practice experience were recruited and randomly assigned to either a Tai Chi exercise group or a control group. The Tai Chi group received four-week Tai Chi training, while the control group engaged in daily exercise (including radio gymnastics and Jianxincao, two kinds of free-hand exercises). During a drug-related Stroop task, participants were instructed to respond to the color of the word ignoring the word type (drug-related or neutral words). The reaction time and d' (the index of sensitivity) were measured.Results: The participants showed attention bias to substance cues; the reaction time was slower for drug-related words than for neutral words (p .05).Conclusion: Four-week Tai Chi intervention reduced sensitivity and attentional bias to drug-related cues in individuals with MUD, suggesting that mind-body exercise might enhance recovery from MUD via attention control.

Background: Regular physical exercise is linked to produce beneficial influence on cognitive functions. Cognition can be evaluated by Stroop test where a person's selective attention capacity, skills and processing speed are assessed. Limited work has been done to explore the acute effect of exercise on cognition. Objective: To assess whether acute exposure to submaximal aerobic exercise of three minutes can bring changes in the cognitive function (selective attention and cognitive processing ability). The secondary objective was to assess the physical fitness index of medical students. Methods: Twenty four apparently healthy third year male medical students of BPKIHS (B. P. Koirala Institute of Health Sciences) having mean age of 22.33 ± 1.09 years, body height and weight of 170.10 ± 5.85 cm of 65.38 ± 8.84 kg respectively were recruited. A computer based online version of Stroop Test was done to identify cognitive performance in resting sitting position. Then participants were asked to perform 3 min step test. A recovery time of 5 min was given post exercise and Stroop Test was assessed again. Statistical analysis was done using Paired T test. Data are expressed in mean and SD. Level of significance is considered at p

Gait disorders in patients with Parkinson’s disease (PD) impact their mobility and self-dependence. Gait training and dual-task (DT)-training improve gait quality. This study aims to assess the feasibility of a specific, gradually intensified DT-training for PD patients with a special focus on gait performance under single task (ST) and DT conditions. Correlations to Freezing of Gait (FoG) were examined. 17 PD patients (70.1 ± 7.4 years, H&Y Stadium 2–3, FoG-Q 9.0 ± 5.5) participated in a four-week DT-training (1x/week, 60 min) with progressively increasing task difficulty and number of tasks. Gait performance (spatiotemporal parameters) was assessed during ST and DT conditions. The training improved DT gait performance, especially gait velocity + 0.11 m/s; (F(2,16) = 7.163; p = .0171; η2part = .309) and step length (+ 5.73 cm). Also, physical well-being and absolved walking distance improved significantly. Correlation analyses of the FoG score at baseline with relative change of gait metrics post-training revealed significant correlations with training-induced changes of step length and improvement of gait velocity. Overall, the developed DT-training was feasible and effective. Further studies should examine the long-term benefits and the optimal setting to achieve the highest impact. The study was registered in the DRKS (ID DRKS00018084, 23.1.20).

Dual-task is the concurrent performance of two independent single tasks (ST) that have distinct goals. Daily variations in performance of singular cognitive or motor tasks are reported in the literature.To investigate whether performance of a dual-task (DT) varies based on the time of day and whether there is interference between the motor and cognitive aspect of DT.Participants performed a 10 Meter Walk Test (10MWT) for motor and a Stroop Test for cognitive task. The DT activity combined both STs. All participants performed three trials for all three conditions at three different times of the day (morning, noon, afternoon), on separate testing days.Data were collected on 42 participants. Most participants were female (28/42), average age of 27.95 ± 9.28 years, and BMI of 25.58 ± 4.49 Kg/m2. Walking velocities in ST were consistently faster than in DT, p .0005. In DT conditions, the participants walked faster at noon (1.21 ± 0.13 m/s) compared to the morning (1.16 ± 0.15 m/s, p = 0.01) or the afternoon (1.16 ± 0.18 m/s, p = 0.04). The participants' score on the DT-Stroop test were only different at noon (11.43 ± 2.28) when compared to morning (10.67 ± 1.34, p = 0.006). The percentage DT-Cognitive interference effect was 26.1 % in the morning, 11.8 % at noon and 13.4 % in the afternoon. The Motor interference was -14.6 % in the morning, -12.2 % at noon and -13.8 % in the afternoon.Noon is the best time to perform a dual task condition. Noon consistently exhibited the least motor or cognitive interference. Conversely, the maximum boost in cognitive performance was observed in the mornings.

The ability to adjust our behavior flexibly depending on situational demands and changes in the environment is an important characteristic of cognitive control. Previous studies have proved that this type of adaptive control plays a crucial role in selective attention, but have barely explored whether and how attentional networks support adaptive control. In the present study, a Stroop task with a different proportion of incongruent trials was used to investigate the brain activity and connectivity of six typical attentional control networks (i.e., the fronto‐parietal network (FPN), cingulo‐opercular network (CON), default mode network (DMN), dorsal attention network (DAN), and ventral attention network/salience network (VAN/SN)) in the environment with changing control demand. The behavioral analysis indicated a decreased Stroop interference (incongruent vs. congruent trial response time [RT]) with the increase in the proportion of incongruent trials within a block, indicating that cognitive control was improved there. The fMRI data revealed that the attenuate Stroop interference was accompanied by the activation of frontal and parietal regions, such as bilateral dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and anterior cingulate cortex. Crucially, the improved cognitive control induced by the increased proportion of incongruent trials was associated with the enhanced functional connectivity within the five networks, and a greater connection between CON with the DAN/SN, and between DMN with the CON/DAN/SN. Meanwhile, however, the functional coupling between the FPN and VAN was decreased. These results suggest that flexible regulations of cognitive control are implemented by the large‐scale reconfiguration of connectivity patterns among the attentional networks., Flexible regulations of cognitive control supported by functional connectivity changes among the attentional networks. Coupling within and between cingulo‐opercular network and dorsal attention network underpin the proactive control implemented in contexts that require control frequently. Cognitive control reactively implemented in contexts that require control rarely associated with functional coupling between the fronto‐parietal network and ventral attention network.

Gait speed is a measure of health and functioning. Physical and cognitive determinants of gait are amenable to interventions, but best practices remain unclear. We investigated the effects of a 12-month physical and cognitive training (PTCT) on gait speed, dual-task cost in gait speed, and executive functions (EFs) compared with physical training (PT) (ISRCTN52388040). Community-dwelling older adults, who did not meet physical activity recommendations, were recruited (n = 314). PT included supervised walking/balance (once weekly) and resistance/balance training (once weekly), home exercises (2-3 times weekly), and moderate aerobic activity 150 min/week in bouts of >10 min. PTCT included the PT and computer training (CT) on EFs 15-20 min, 3-4 times weekly. The primary outcome was gait speed. Secondary outcomes were 6-min walking distance, dual-task cost in gait speed, and EF (Stroop and Trail Making B-A). The trial was completed by 93% of the participants (age 74.5 [SD3.8] years; 60% women). Mean adherence to supervised sessions was 59%-72% in PT and 62%-77% in PTCT. Home exercises and CT were performed on average 1.9 times/week. Weekly minutes spent in aerobic activities were 188 (median 169) in PT and 207 (median 180) in PTCT. No significant interactions were observed for gait speed (PTCT-PT, 0.02; 95%CI -0.03, 0.08), walking distance (-3.8; -16.9, 9.3) or dual-task cost (-0.22; -1.74, 1.30). Stroop improvement was greater after PTCT than PT (-6.9; -13.0, -0.8). Complementing physical training with EFs training is not essential for promotion of gait speed. For EF's, complementing physical training with targeted cognitive training provides additional benefit.

International audience; Abstract We assessed the effects of a 3-min partial-body cryostimulation (PBC) exposure—where the whole body is exposed to extreme cold, except the head—on cognitive inhibition performance and the possible implications of parasympathetic cardiac control and cerebral oxygenation. In a randomized controlled counterbalanced cross-over design, eighteen healthy young adults (nine males and nine females) completed a cognitive Stroop task before and after one single session of PBC (3-min exposure at − 150 °C cold air) and a control condition (3 min at room temperature, 20 °C). During the cognitive task, heart rate variability (HRV) and cerebral oxygenation of the prefrontal cortex were measured using heart rate monitoring and near-infrared spectroscopy methods. We also recorded the cerebral oxygenation during the PBC session. Stroop performance after PBC exposure was enhanced (562.0 ± 40.2 ms) compared to pre-PBC (602.0 ± 56.4 ms; P

Inhibitory control is a main component of executive functions that relate to the ability to control prepotent responses and to resist interferences. Deficits in inhibitory control have been associated with numerous disorders, but exercise has become a promising approach to benefit this domain. This systematic review and meta-analysis aims to provide synthesized information and effect size calculations of the benefits of chronic exercise interventions on the inhibitory control of healthy children and adolescents. A systematic search of PubMed, PsycINFO, MEDLINE, ERIC, SPORTDiscus, and PsycArticles identified 4166 articles to be screened for eligibility. A total of 10 studies (3138 participants) met the inclusion criteria. A random-effects analysis model was performed in three variables: accuracy, reaction time and combined scores. The results showed a very small but statistically significant effect in accuracy (d = 0.14, 95% CI 0.01 to 0.27, P =.04), and two almost null effects (statistically non-significant), in the reaction time (d = 0.03, 95% CI -0.10 to 0.16, P =.62) and the combined scores (d = 0.06, 95% CI -0.03 to 0.15, P =.17). Despite the high number of studies that reported positive outcomes, this meta-analysis found only modest benefits in the inhibitory control of healthy children and adolescents after they participated in different chronic exercise interventions. The strict inclusion criteria of this study and the high variability in the designs of the exercise interventions included, among other reasons, might explain the obtained results.

Background: Myelin damage is a salient feature in cerebral small vessel disease (cSVD). Of note, myelin damage extends into the normal appearing white matter (NAWM). Currently, the specific role of myelin content in cognition is poorly understood. Objective: The objective of this exploratory study was to investigate the association between NAWM myelin and cognitive function in older adults with cSVD. Methods: This exploratory study included 55 participants with cSVD. NAWM myelin was measured using myelin water imaging and was quantified as myelin water fraction (MWF). Assessment of cognitive function included processing speed (Trail Making Test Part A), set shifting (Trail Making Test Part B minus A), working memory (Verbal Digit Span Backwards Test), and inhibition (Stroop Test). Multiple linear regression analyses assessed the contribution of NAWM MWF on cognitive outcomes controlling for age, education, and total white matter hyperintensity volume. The overall alpha was set at ≤0.05. Results: After accounting for age, education, and total white matter hyperintensity volume, lower NAWM MWF was significantly associated with slower processing speed (β = –0.29, p = 0.037) and poorer working memory (β= 0.30, p = 0.048). NAWM MWF was not significantly associated with set shifting or inhibitory control (p > 0.132). Conclusion: Myelin loss in NAWM may play a role in the evolution of impaired processing speed and working memory in people with cSVD. Future studies, with a longitudinal design and larger sample sizes, are needed to fully elucidate the role of myelin as a potential biomarker for cognitive function.

RationaleInhibition is a core executive function and refers to the ability to deliberately suppress attention, behavior, thoughts, and/or emotions and instead act in a specific manner. While acute alcohol exposure has been shown to impair response inhibition in the stop-signal and Go/NoGo tasks, reported alcohol effects on attentional inhibition in the Stroop task are inconsistent. Notably, studies have operationalized attentional inhibition variably and there has been intra- and inter-individual variability in alcohol exposure.ObjectiveThis study aimed to examine the acute effects of alcohol on attentional inhibition, considering previous limitations.MethodsIn a single-blind, cross-over design, 40 non-dependent participants with a medium-to-high risk drinking behavior performed a Counting Stroop task (CST) under a baseline and an arterial blood alcohol concentration (aBAC) clamp at 80 mg%. Attentional inhibition was assessed as the alteration of reaction times (RT), error rates (ER), and inverse efficiency scores (IES) between incongruent and congruent trials (interference score). Stroop performance was also assessed regardless of trial-type.ResultsCompared to saline, acute alcohol exposure via an aBAC clamp did not affect CST interference scores but increased RTs and IES in both incongruent and congruent trials.ConclusionsAttentional inhibition (Stroop interference score) was not impaired by clamped moderate alcohol exposure. Acute alcohol impaired Stroop performance evidenced by a general increase in response times. Our findings suggest that response and attentional inhibition do not share the same neurocognitive mechanisms and are affected differently by alcohol. Results could also be explained by automated behaviors known to be relatively unaffected by acute alcohol.

The classification of inhibitory control and the relationship between the subcomponents of inhibitory control have been the focus of many studies. This study mainly explored the influence of response inhibition training on interference control through event-related potential data. Forty college students were randomly divided into a training group and a control group. Two response inhibition tasks were used as training tasks and the Stroop and go/no-go tasks were used with electroencephalogram monitoring to evaluate students' abilities in the two kinds of inhibitory control. The results showed that the conflict effect of the training group significantly improved after training compared with those of the control group. In the training group, the N2 effect was enhanced not only in the no-go stimulation in the training task but also in the incongruent stimulation in the untrained Stroop task and there was a correlation in the enhancement of the N2 effect between the two tasks. To some extent, this study provided neuroscientific evidence that response inhibition training can transfer to interference control.

Objectives Lead exposure causes neurocognitive dysfunction in children, but its association with neurocognition in adults at current occupational exposure levels is uncertain mainly due to the lack of longitudinal studies. In the Study for Promotion of Health in Recycling Lead (NCT02243904), we assessed the two-year responses of neurocognitive function among workers without previous known occupational exposure newly hired at lead recycling plants. Methods Workers completed the digit-symbol test (DST) and Stroop test (ST) at baseline and annual follow-up visits. Blood lead (BL) was measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (detection limit 0.5 mu g/dL). Statistical methods included multivariable-adjusted mixed models with participants modelled as random effect. Results DST was administered to 260 participants (11.9% women; 46.9%/45.0% whites/Hispanics; mean age 29.4 years) and ST to 168 participants. Geometric means were 3.97 and 4.13 mu g/dL for baseline BL, and 3.30 and 3.44 for the last-follow-up-to-baseline BL ratio in DST and ST cohorts, respectively. In partially adjusted models, a doubling of the BL ratio was associated with a 0.66% [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.03-1.30%; P=0.040] increase in latency time (DST) and a 0.35% (95% CI -1.63-1.63%; P=0.59) decrease in the inference effect (ST). In fully adjusted models, none of the associations of the changes in the DST and ST test results with the blood lead changes reached statistical significance (P=0.12). Conclusions An over 3-fold increase in blood lead over two years of occupational exposure was not associated with a relevant decline in cognitive performance. The International Lead Association (www.ila-lead.org) provided an unrestricted grant to the Research Unit Hypertension and Cardiovascular Epidemiology, KU Leuven Department of Cardiovascular Sciences, University of Leuven, partially supporting database management and statistical analysis. The non-profit research institute Alliance for the Promotion of Preventive Medicine (www.appremed.org) received a grant from OMRON Healthcare Co. Ltd., Kyoto, Japan. The funding source had no role in the study design; in the collection, analysis, and interpretation of the data; or in the writing of the report. The corresponding author had full access to all data and had the final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. Staessen, JA (corresponding author), Res Inst Assoc Promot Prevent Med, Leopoldstr 59, BE-2800 Mechelen, Belgium. jan.staessen@appremed.org

Motor adaptation plays an important role in the acquisition of new motor skills. It has been reported that cognitive tasks can promote motor adaptation; however, which cognitive tasks effectively promote motor adaptation remains unknown. This study aimed to examine what factors of cognitive tasks contribute to promoting motor adaptation. Forty-two healthy young adults were randomly assigned to one of three groups: incongruent Stroop task group (iSTG), congruent Stroop task group (cSTG), and control group (CG). All participants underwent 20 blocks of a mouse-tracking task on the 1st and 2nd days. Before the mouse tracking task on the 1st day, the iSTG and cSTG completed the incongruent and congruent Stroop tasks, respectively. Participants in the CG did not perform any cognitive tasks. On the 28th day, all participants underwent 3 blocks of the mouse tracking task to evaluate their retention of motor adaptation. As a result, on the 1st day, the mouse tracking task performance improved equally for both groups. However, on the 2nd and 28th days, the mouse tracking task performance in the iSTG showed greater improvements for all blocks compared to those in the CG. These results suggest that the incongruent Stroop task promotes motor adaptation, but the congruent Stroop task does not. In addition, it is suggested that factors, which are primarily involved in the incongruent Stroop task, might promote motor adaptation.

Objectives:It is uncertain if long-term levels of low-density lipoprotein-cholesterol (LDL-C) affect cognition in middle age. We examined the association of LDL-C levels over 25 years with cognitive function in a prospective cohort of black and white US adults.Methods:Lipids were measured at baseline (1985–1986; age: 18–30 years) and at serial examinations conducted over 25 years. Time-averaged cumulative LDL-C was calculated using the area under the curve for 3,328 participants with ≥3 LDL-C measurements and a cognitive function assessment. Cognitive function was assessed at the Year 25 examination with the Digit Symbol Substitution Test [DSST], Rey Auditory Visual Learning Test [RAVLT], and Stroop Test. A brain magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) sub-study (N = 707) was also completed at Year 25 to assess abnormal white matter tissue volume (AWMV) and gray matter cerebral blood flow volume (GM-CBFV) as secondary outcomes.Results:There were 15.6%, 32.9%, 28.9%, and 22.6% participants with time-averaged cumulative LDL-C SD lower to 0.09 SD higher across time-averaged LDL-C categories in comparison to those with LDL-C < 100 mg/dL. After covariate adjustment, participants with higher versus lower time-averaged LDL-C had a lower RAVLT score (p-trend = 0.02) but no differences were present for DSST, Stroop Test, AWMV, or GM-CBFV.Conclusion:Cumulative LDL-C was associated with small differences in memory, as assessed by RAVLT scores, but not other cognitive or brain MRI measures over 25 years of follow-up.

ObjectiveTo determine the association between hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) and cognitive impairment 15 years after pregnancy, we measured cognitive performance in 115 women with a history of HDP and in 481 women with a previous normotensive pregnancy.MethodsThis was a nested cohort study embedded in a population-based prospective cohort from early pregnancy onwards. Cognitive function was assessed with cognitive tests 15 years after the index pregnancy (median 14.7 years, 90% range [13.9–16.1]). Cognitive performance was measured in different cognitive domains: executive function, processing speed, verbal memory, motor function, and visuospatial ability. A global cognition factor (g-factor) was derived from principal component analysis.ResultsOf the women with HDP, 80 (69.6%) had gestational hypertension (GH) and 35 (30.4%) had preeclampsia. Women with HDP had a lower g-factor than women with a previous normotensive pregnancy (mean −0.22, 90% range [−2.06−1.29]). HDP was negatively associated with the 15-word learning test: immediate recall (−0.25, 95% CI [−0.44 to −0.06]) and delayed recall (−0.30, 95% CI [−0.50 to −0.10]). Women with GH perform significantly worse on their 15-word learning test than women with a previous normotensive pregnancy.ConclusionA history of HDP is independently associated with poorer working memory and verbal learning 15 years after pregnancy. This association is mainly driven by women with GH. Clinicians and women who experienced HDP should be aware of this risk.

Much attention has been focused on physical exercise benefits to mental health such as mood and cognitive function. Our recent studies have consistently shown that a single bout of exercise elicits increased task-related brain activation mainly in the dorsolateral part of the prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), which results in improved executive performance. As the DLPFC is associated with the modulation of mood as well as executive function, it is tempting to hypothesize that exercising while in a positive mood would facilitate the beneficial effects of exercise on executive function via DLPFC activation. Thus, we conceived an experiment that used music to elicit a positive mood during exercise. Thirty-three young adults performed ten minutes of moderate-intensity (50% V.O2peak) pedaling exercise with two experimental conditions: listening to music and listening to beeps at a steady tempo. Mood and executive function were respectively assessed using the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale and a color-word-matching Stroop task before and after the exercise sessions. Prefrontal activation during the Stroop task was monitored using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Exercise with music elicited greater enhancement of a positive mood (vitality) than did exercise with beeps. Contrary to our hypothesis, there were no significant differences between conditions in improvement in Stroop task performance and task-related cortical activation in the left-DLPFC. The correlation analyses, however, revealed significant correlations among increased vitality, shortened Stroop interference time and increased activation in the left-DLPFC. These results support the hypothesis that positive mood while exercising influences the benefit of exercise on prefrontal activation and executive performance.

Objective:Patients with schizophrenia and individuals with schizotypy, a subclinical group at risk for schizophrenia, have been found to have impairments in cognitive control. The Dual Mechanisms of Cognitive Control (DMC) framework hypothesises that cognitive control can be divided into proactive and reactive control. However, it is unclear whether individuals with schizotypy have differential behavioural impairments and neural correlates underlying these two types of cognitive control.Method:Twenty-five individuals with schizotypy and 26 matched healthy controls (HCs) completed both reactive and proactive control tasks with electroencephalographic data recorded. The proportion of congruent and incongruent trials was manipulated in a classic colour-word Stroop task to induce proactive or reactive control. Proactive control was induced in a context with mostly incongruent (MI) trials and reactive control in a context with mostly congruent (MC) trials. Two event-related potential (ERP) components, medial frontal negativity (MFN, associated with conflict detection) and conflict sustained potential (conflict SP, associated with conflict resolution) were examined.Results:There was no significant difference between the two groups in terms of behavioural results. In terms of ERP results, in the MC context, HC exhibited significantly larger MFN (360–530 ms) and conflict SP (600–1000 ms) amplitudes than individuals with schizotypy. The two groups did not show any significant difference in MFN or conflict SP in the MI context.Conclusions:The present findings provide initial evidence for dissociation of neural activation between proactive and reactive cognitive control in individuals with schizotypy. These findings help us understand cognitive control deficits in the schizophrenia spectrum.

Purpose: To examine responses to a simulated rugby league protocol designed to include more stochastic commands, and therefore require greater vigilance, than traditional team-sport simulation protocols. Methods: Eleven male university rugby players completed 2 trials (randomized and control [CON]) of a rugby league movement simulation protocol, separated by 7 to 10 d. The CON trial consisted of 48 repeated ∼115-s cycles of activity. The stochastic simulation (STOCH) was matched for the number and types of activity performed every 5.45 min in CON but included no repeated cycles of activity. Movement using GPS, heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, and Stroop test performance was assessed throughout. Maximum voluntary contraction peak torque, voluntary activation (in percentage), and global task load were assessed after exercise. Results: The mean mental demand of STOCH was higher than CON (effect size [ES] = 0.56; ±0.69). Mean sprint speed was higher in STOCH (22.5 [1.4] vs 21.6 [1.6] km·h−1, ES = 0.50; ±0.55), which was accompanied by a higher rating of perceived exertion (14.3 [1.0] vs 13.0 [1.4], ES = 0.87; ±0.67) and a greater number of errors in the Stroop test (10.3 [2.5] vs 9.3 [1.4] errors; ES = 0.65; ±0.83). Maximum voluntary contraction peak torque (CON = −48.4 [31.6] N·m and STOCH = −39.6 [36.6] N·m) and voluntary activation (CON = −8.3% [4.8%] and STOCH = −6.0% [4.1%]) was similarly reduced in both trials. Conclusions: Providing more stochastic commands, which requires greater vigilance, might alter performance and associated physiological, perceptual, and cognitive responses to team-sport simulations.

Objective Attentional biases to stimuli related to stigmatized appearance are theorized to stem from appearance overvaluation, but little research has examined this link. As well, little research has examined whether appearance overvaluation is associated with biases toward stimuli that describe the attractiveness ideal. We addressed these gaps in the literature using the emotional Stroop task and tested whether appearance overvaluation is associated with an attentional bias for words that describe stigmatized appearance (e.g., fat, ugly, shabby), the attractiveness ideal (e.g., thin, beautiful, fashionable), or both. Method and results In Study 1, a community sample of people (N = 86) completed measures of appearance overvaluation, body dissatisfaction, and body mass index (BMI) followed by an emotional Stroop task. Appearance overvaluation was associated with an attentional bias for attractiveness ideal words-not stigmatized appearance words. Results remained significant when controlling for participants' body dissatisfaction, BMI, and gender. Study 2 (N = 316) replicated these findings. Finally, an integrative data analysis that pooled the data of Studies 1 and 2 (N = 402) provided additional support for our general hypothesis that people who overvalue appearance display an attentional bias to stimuli related to the attractiveness ideal. Discussion The results show a robust association between appearance overvaluation and selective attention for attractiveness ideal stimuli. Results are discussed in reference to theory and research on information processing in eating disorders. We also call for research to examine information processing of stimuli related to the attractiveness ideal among people with eating disorders and who place high importance on appearance for self-definition.

Rosenbaum, Mama, and Algom (2017) reported that participants who completed the Stroop task (i.e., name the hue of a color word when the hue and word meaning are congruent or incongruent) showed a smaller Stroop effect (i.e., the difference in response times between congruent and incongruent trials) when they performed the task standing than when sitting. We report five attempted replications (analyzed sample sizes: N = 108, N = 108, N = 98, N = 78, and N = 51, respectively) of Rosenbaum et al.’s findings, which were conducted in two institutions. All experiments yielded the standard Stroop effect, but we failed to detect any consistent effect of posture (sitting vs. standing) on the magnitude of the Stroop effect. Taken together, the results suggest that posture does not influence the magnitude of the Stroop effect to the extent that was previously suggested.

Young, Sutherland, and McCoy indicated that a Go/No-Go Task (GNG) becomes more difficult as the inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) becomes shorter. However, is the number of commission errors under extremely short ISIs a useful metric for assessing response inhibition? This study challenges the assumption that a shorter ISI in the GNG enables better assessment of response inhibition. University students (N = 213) completed the GNG, the Conners Continuous Performance Test 3rd Edition (CCPT), and the Modified Stroop Task. The GNG comprised four blocks of 400, 600, 800, and 1000 ms ISIs, whereas the stimulus presentation was fixed at 250 ms. Consistent with Young et al., shorter ISIs in the GNG resulted in more commission errors. In the block with the shortest ISI, participants also failed more frequently in responses in go trials than in the other blocks, which appears to increase in error variance of commission errors. Consistent with this interpretation, the association between the number of commission errors in the block with 400 ms ISI and CCPT performance was weaker than those between the number of commission errors in other blocks and CCPT performance. It is concluded that using the number of commission errors in the condition with extremely short ISIs in the GNG might be inappropriate for assessing response inhibition.

The cognitive effects of acute aerobic exercise were investigated in endurance-trained individuals. On two occasions, 21 cyclists; 11 male (VO2max: 57 ± 9 mL·kg−1·min−1) and 10 female (VO2max: 51 ±...

Tactical breathing (TB) is used by military and law enforcement personnel to reduce stress and maintain psychomotor and cognitive performance in dangerous situations (Grossman and Christensen, in On combat: the psychology and physiology of deadly conflict in war and in peace, PPCT Research Publications, Belleville, 2008). So far, empirical evidence on the effectiveness of TB is limited and there are breathing techniques that are easier to learn and to apply. This study compared the effectiveness of tactical breathing and prolonged exhalation (ProlEx) under laboratory conditions. Thirty healthy participants performed a Stroop interference task under time pressure and noise distraction. Time pressure was induced with short inter-trial intervals of 350 ms and short trial durations of 1500 ms. Acoustic distraction was realised with white noise with intensity increasing from 77 to 89 dB SPL over the course of an experimental block. In a counterbalanced repeated-measures design, participants used either TB or ProlEx to reduce the induced psychological and physiological arousal. Stress reactions were assessed on the subjective level (Steyer et al., in Multidimensional mood questionnaire (MDMQ), Hogrefe, Göttingen, 1997) and on the physiological level (heart rate, heart rate variability, electrodermal activity). Results showed no significant differences between breathing techniques on the subjective level. While participants showed a lower physiological arousal in the TB condition, better performance was achieved in the ProlEx condition. Results indicate that TB may be superior in passive coping conditions, while ProlEx is more effective when active coping is required.

The present study investigated how response mode (oral vs. manual) modulates the Stroop effect using a picture variant of the Stroop task in which participants named orally, or identified with a manual keypress, line drawings of animals (e.g., camel). Consistent with previous color-response Stroop studies, relative to the nonlinguistic neutral distractor (a row of "#" symbols), incongruent distractors (e.g., GIRAFFE) interfered with responding to pictures, and that interference was reduced for the manual, compared with the oral, response. Additionally, pseudoword distractors with no phonological overlap with the picture name (e.g., NUST-camel) interfered with the oral, but not the manual, response. The novel finding is that relative to this pseudoword distractor, the oral response was facilitated when the distractor shared the onset segment with the picture name, regardless of orthographic overlap (e.g., CUST-camel = KUST-camel < NUST-camel); in contrast, for the manual response, there was no difference between the three pseudoword distractor conditions. These results are explained in terms of phonological encoding, a speech production process involved in computing a phonetic plan for generating an oral, but not a manual, response. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2020 APA, all rights reserved).

Background: Cognitive control of brain regions can be determined by the tasks involving the cognitive control such as the color word Stroop task. Stroop task define the reduction in function in incongruent condition, which requires more attention and control of competitive responses. Objective: The purpose of this study was to evaluate the activity of brain using the Modified Conflict Stroop Task in Military Personnel.Material and Methods: In this applied experimental study, to specify the activity of different regions of brain in response to conflict Persian color-word Stroop task, 20 healthy persons participated in this study. To evaluate selective attention, the traditional color-word Stroop Task Model was modified, and the Stroop test was designed in high- and low-threat zones. We used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to evaluate the brain activation during the Stroop task performance. The color-word Stroop task consists of incongruent, congruent, and neutral conditions, and the subjects were requested to carefully choose the correct answer. Results: The mean response time was longer in incongruent condition (867.6±193.5ms) compared to congruent and neutral conditions. Analysis of neuroimaging data revealed that the brain conflict-related regions are activated by the Stroop interference. In incongruent trial, the superior frontal gyrus (SFG) and inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) showed the most active and stronger BOLD responses. In congruent trials, the activation in the brain was less and had difference compared with incongruent trials. Conclusion: Our result offers that the frontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex are sensitive to different trials of Persian Stroop task. Using modified Stroop task, we determined the brain responses to the selective attention test.

Cognitive dysfunction is a significant complaint among patients after moderate to severe traumatic brain injury (TBI), with devastating consequences on functional recovery and quality of life. Prognostic models allow a better assessment and management of neurotrauma patients. The aim of the study was to demonstrate the predictive value of the Baseline Prognostic Risk Score (BPRS) in moderate to severe TBI, in a sample of patients treated with neurotrophic factors. Eighty patients with moderate-severe TBI from the CAPTAIN II study were included in secondary data analysis. Patients received active treatment with Cerebrolysin, 50 mL per day for ten days, followed by two treatment cycles with 10 mL per day for ten days. BPRS was determined on admission; the age was recorded, and patients were evaluated using the following neurocognitive tests: Mini-Mental State Essay (MMSE), Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Third Edition Processing Speed Index (WAIS-III PSI) and Stroop Colour Word Test-Victoria Version at 10, 30 and 90 days. Hierarchical regression analysis was performed to investigate the unique predictive value of BPRS on cognitive evolution, independent of age. BPRS independently predicted scores on the WAIS-III PSI DSCales and the Word subscale of the Stroop Colour Word Test at 90 days. Age was a significant predictor for all the investigated scales at 10, 30, and 90 days. This study demonstrates the predictive value of a validated prognostic model (BPRS) for medium-term neurocognitive outcomes in a sample of moderate-severe traumatic brain injury treated with neurotrophic factors.

Minimal hepatic encephalopathy (MHE), which shows mild cognitive impairment, is a subtle complication of cirrhosis that has been shown to affect daily functioning and quality of life. However, until 2014, relevant guidelines do not give much attention to the diagnosis and treatment of MHE, resulting in patients being ignored and denied the benefits of treatment. In this review, we summarize recent cognition-based research about (1) alteration of nerve cells, including astrocytes, microglial cells and neurons, in mild cognitive impairment in MHE; (2) comparison of methods in detecting cognitive impairment in MHE; and (3) comparison of methods for therapy of cognitive impairment in MHE. We hope to provide information about diagnosis and treatment of cognitive impairment in patients with MHE.

Task‐based functional neuroimaging methods are increasingly being used to identify biomarkers of treatment response in psychiatric disorders. To facilitate meaningful interpretation of neural correlates of tasks and their potential changes with treatment over time, understanding the reliability of the blood‐oxygen‐level dependent (BOLD) signal of such tasks is essential. We assessed test–retest reliability of an emotional conflict task in healthy participants collected as part of the Canadian Biomarker Integration Network in Depression. Data for 36 participants, scanned at three time points (weeks 0, 2, and 8) were analyzed, and intra‐class correlation coefficients (ICC) were used to quantify reliability. We observed moderate reliability (median ICC values between 0.5 and 0.6), within occipital, parietal, and temporal regions, specifically for conditions of lower cognitive complexity, that is, face, congruent or incongruent trials. For these conditions, activation was also observed within frontal and sub‐cortical regions, however, their reliability was poor (median ICC

Background and Design: This study aimed to investigate any relationship between an emerging attention deficit in patients with acne vulgarisand have reached cumulative doses under isotretinoin treatment.Materials and Methods: A total of 100 patients (aged 16-40 years) with acne vulgaris who have reached cumulative doses under isotretinoinmedication for over a period of 6 months were included in the study. Using the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT), attention was assessedin the patients at the beginning and 3rd and 6th month of the treatment.Results: A repeated measures ANOVA analysis was performed to determine whether there was any change in the SCWT results over timeafter the first dose and 3rd and 6th month of the treatment. The changes in all SCWT results were statistically significant with respect to time.The time required for each task assessed by means of the SCWT was found to be significantly reduced over time.Conclusion: After evaluating the results of the SCWT performed at the beginning and 3rd and 6th month of the treatment, it was concludedthat the treatment with the cumulative doses of isotretinoin was not significantly associated with any emerging attention deficit symptoms orsigns in patients with acne vulgaris. It is possible that the patients were trained during the SCWT with the repeated performances in the study,which may have resulted a significant decrease in the test duration. This prospective study suggests that there is no casual relationship betweenthe use of isotretinoin and attention deficit in patients with acne vulgaris. Amaç: Çalışmada isotretinoin tedavisi başlanan ve kümülatif doza ulaşan hastalarda tedavi süresince ilaç kullanımı ile dikkat eksikliği arasındaki bir ilişkinin olup olmadığının tanımlanarak literatüre katkıda bulunması amaçlanmıştır. Gereç ve Yöntem: Akne vulgaris tanısıyla isotretinoin tedavisi başlanan ve kümülatif doza ulaşan 16-40 yaş arası 100 hasta çalışmaya alınmıştır. Hastaların tedavinin başlangıçında, tedavinin 3. ayında ve 6. ayında Stroop testi ile dikkat ölçümleri (SCWT) değerlendirilmiştir. Bulgular: Hastalara ilk başvurularında, tedavinin 3. ayında ve 6. ayında Stroop testi uygulanarak elde edilen SCWT ölçümlerinin zamana göre değişip değişmediğini belirlemek için tekrarlı ölçüm ANOVA analizi yapılmıştır. Stroop testine ait tüm ölçümlerin zamana göre değişimi istatistiksel olarak anlamlıdır. Her beş ölçüme ait sürelerin zamana göre anlamlı olarak azaldığı tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç: İsotretionin başlanan kümülatif doza ulaşan hastaların tedavi başlangıcında, tedavinin 3. ayında ve 6. ayında yapılan Stroop testi sonuçları, isotretinoin tedavisi ile dikkat eksikliği arasında bir ilişkinin olmadığını testlerin okunma sürelerinde görülen anlamlı azalmanın, katılımcıların Stroop testini öğrenme etkisinden kaynaklanmış olabileceği düşünülmüştür. Bu prospektif çalışma, isotretinoin kullanımı ile dikkat eksikliği arasında nedensel bir bağlantı olmadığını göstermektedir. WOS:000544407100001 2-s2.0-85111976678

Background: Elevated blood pressure (BP) is a risk factor for cognitive impairment. Objective: We aim to explore the association between the duration of hypertension in early adulthood, with cognitive function in midlife. Furthermore, we investigate whether this asssociation is altered among participants with controlled BP. Methods: This prospective study included 2,718 adults aged 18–30 years without hypertension at baseline who participated in the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. Duration of hypertension was calculated based on repeat measurements of BP performed at 2, 5, 7, 10, 15, 20, and 25 years after baseline. Cognitive function was assessed at Year-25 using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test (RAVLT), Digit Symbol Substitution Test (DSST), and Stroop test. Results: After multivariable adjustment, a longer hypertension duration was associated with worse verbal memory (RAVLT, p trend = 0.002) but not with processing speed (DSST, p trend = 0.112) and executive function (Stroop test, p trend = 0.975). Among subgroups of participants with controlled (BP

Aim: The aim of the current study was to assess whether executive function and prefrontal oxygenation are dependent on fitness level and age in older adults. Methods: Twenty-four healthy males aged between 55 and 69 years old were recruited for this study. They were stratified by age, leading to the creation of two groups: 55–60 years old and 61–69 years old. A median split based on CRF created higher- and lower-fit categories of participants. Cerebral oxygenation was assessed using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during a computerized Stroop task. Accuracy (% of correct responses) and reaction times (ms) were used as behavioural indicators of cognitive performances. Changes in oxygenated (∆[HbO2]) and deoxygenated (∆[HHb]) hemoglobin were measured to capture neural changes. Repeated measures ANOVAs (CRF × Age × Stroop conditions) were performed to test the null hypothesis of an absence of interaction between CRF, Age and executive performance. Results: We also found an interaction between CRF and age on reaction times (p = .001), in which higher fitness levels were related to faster reaction times in the 61–69 year olds but not in the 55–60 year olds. Regarding ΔHHb, the ANOVA revealed a main effect of CRF in the right PFC (p = .04), in which higher-fit participants had a greater Δ[HHb] than the lower-fit (d = 1.5). We also found fitness by age interaction for Δ[HHb] in the right PFC (p = .04). Conclusion: Our results support the positive association of CRF on cerebral oxygenation and Stroop performance in healthy older males. They indicated that high-fit individuals performed better in the 61–69 year olds group, but not in the 55–60 years old group. We also observed a greater PFC oxygenation change (as measured by Δ[HHb]) in the high-fit individuals.

Running, compared to pedaling is a whole-body locomotive movement that may confer more mental health via strongly stimulating brains, although running impacts on mental health but their underlying brain mechanisms have yet to be determined; since almost the mechanistic studies have been done with pedaling. We thus aimed at determining the acute effect of a single bout of running at moderate-intensity, the most popular condition, on mood and executive function as well as their neural substrates in the prefrontal cortex (PFC). Twenty-six healthy participants completed both a 10-min running session on a treadmill at 50%$${\dot{\text{V}}\text{O}}_{{{\text{2peak}}}}$$ V ˙ O 2peak and a resting control session in randomized order. Executive function was assessed using the Stroop interference time from the color-word matching Stroop task (CWST) and mood was assessed using the Two-Dimensional Mood Scale, before and after both sessions. Prefrontal hemodynamic changes while performing the CWST were investigated using functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Running resulted in significant enhanced arousal and pleasure level compared to control. Running also caused significant greater reduction of Stroop interference time and increase in Oxy-Hb signals in bilateral PFCs. Besides, we found a significant association among pleasure level, Stroop interference reaction time, and the left dorsolateral PFCs: important brain loci for inhibitory control and mood regulation. To our knowledge, an acute moderate-intensity running has the beneficial of inducing a positive mood and enhancing executive function coinciding with cortical activation in the prefrontal subregions involved in inhibitory control and mood regulation. These results together with previous findings with pedaling imply the specificity of moderate running benefits promoting both cognition and pleasant mood.

Aerobic exercises (AE) have been found to have short-term positive effects on certain aspects of cognitive functioning. Pilates exercises (PE) may have similar benefits. In this randomized controlled study, we compared the effectiveness of PE and AE on participants’ cognitive functions. We randomly assigned 52 physically inactive young adult volunteers into either a PE group ( Mage = 20.85, SD = 2.11 years; 18 females and 8 males) or an AE group ( Mage = 19.88, SD = 0.91 years; 18 females and 8 males). In both groups, participants engaged in a moderately intense exercise program three days a week for four weeks. We tested participants on cognitive measures of selective attention and inhibitory control (Stroop test), verbal fluency (verbal fluency tests (letter and category); VFTs), and speed of movement (Nelson’s Speed of Movement Test; NSMT). There were no group differences on the Stroop and the VFTs ( p>0.05). However, there was a significant pre- to post-exercise difference for participants in both groups with a medium-large effect size (ES) on Stroop sections 1, 3, 4, and 5, respectively (PE: p < 0.001, ES = 0.58, p = 0.001, ES = 0.54, p < 0.001, ES = 0.88, p = 0.001, ES = 0.60; AE: p < 0.001, ES = 0.70, p < 0.001, ES = 0.89, p < 0.001, ES = 0.86, p = 0.006, ES = 0.65). There was a large effect size pre- to post-exercise detected for VFT sections labeled letter (PE: p < 0.001, ES = 1.45; AE: p < 0.001, ES = 1.11), and category (PE: p < 0.001, ES = 1.11; AE: p < 0.001, ES = 0.83), and there was a large ES for NSMT in the PE group ( p < 0.001, ES = 1.07). Both PE and AE may lead to short-term improvements in selective attention, verbal fluency, and executive control in inactive young adults, and PE may benefit speed of movement.

Mental fatigue (MF) is a psychobiological state negatively impacting both cognitive and physical performance. Although recent research implies that some table tennis (TT) performance outcomes are impaired by MF, open skill sports such as TT require a more detailed overview of MF-related performance decrements. Moreover, research into MF and sport-specific psychomotor performance lacks the inclusion of brain-related measurements to identify MF mechanisms. Eleven experienced TT players participated in this randomized counterbalanced crossover trial. Participants were either required to perform an individualized Stroop task (MF condition) or watch a documentary (control condition). The primary outcomes were reaction time on a sport-specific visuomotor task and EEG activity throughout the trial. The subjective feeling of MF was significantly different between both conditions and confirmed that the MF condition induced the mentally fatigue state of participants (p < 0.001), though no behavioral indicators (i.e., decrease in performance on Stroop and flanker task) of MF. MF worsened reaction time on the visuomotor task, while other secondary measurements remained largely ambiguous. Spectral power (i.e., decreases in upper α band and θ band) was influenced by MF, while ERPs measured during the visuomotor task remained unaltered. The present study confirms that MF negatively impacts table tennis performance, specifically inhibitory stimuli during the visuomotor task. These findings also further augment our understanding of the effects of MF on human performance.

Exercise duration may influence the acute effects on cognition. However, only one study to date has explored the dose-response relationship between exercise duration and cognition in adolescents. Thus, the purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of differing durations of high-intensity intermittent running on cognition in adolescents. Thirty-eight adolescents (23 girls) completed three trials separated by 7 d: 30 min exercise, 60 min exercise, and rest, in a randomised crossover design. The exercise was a modified version of the Loughborough Intermittent Shuttle Test (LIST), which elicited high-intensity intermittent exercise. Cognitive function tests (Stroop test, Sternberg paradigm, Flanker task) were completed 30 min pre, immediately post, and 45 min post exercise. Response times on the incongruent level of the Flanker task improved to a greater extent 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to rest (p = 0.009). Moreover, response times improved to a greater extent on the three-item level of Sternberg paradigm 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to the 60 min LIST (p = 0.002) and rest (p = 0.013), as well as on the five-item level 45 min following the 30 min LIST, compared to the 60 min LIST (p = 0.002). In conclusion, acute exercise enhanced subsequent cognition in adolescents, but overall, 30 min of high-intensity intermittent running is more favourable to adolescents’ cognition, compared to 60 min.

International audience; The aim of the present study is to examine whether in Hot, i.e., affectively charged contexts, or cool, i.e., affectively neutral contexts, inhibitory control capacity increases or decreases under social evaluation in adolescents and adults. In two experiments, adolescents and young adults completed two Stroop -like tasks under either a social evaluation condition or an alone condition. The social evaluation condition comprised the presence of a peer (Experiment 1) or an expert (Experiment 2) playing the role of an evaluator, while under the alone condition, the task was performed alone. In the Cool Stroop task, participants had to refrain from reading color names to identify the ink color in which the words were printed. In the Hot Stroop task, participants had to determine the emotional expression conveyed by faces from the NimStim database while ignoring the emotion word displayed beneath. The results were similar in both experiments. In adolescents, social evaluation by a peer (Experiment 1) or by an expert (Experience 2) facilitated Hot but not cool inhibitory control. In adults, social evaluation had no effect on Hot or cool inhibitory control. The present findings expand our understanding of the favorable influence of socioemotional context on Hot inhibitory control during adolescence in healthy individuals.

Growing evidence suggests that both the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) and the subthalamic nucleus (STN) play crucial roles in conflict processing, but how these two structures coordinate their activities remains poorly understood. We simultaneously recorded electroencephalogram from the mPFC and local field potentials from the STN using deep brain stimulation electrodes in 13 Parkinson's disease patients while they performed a Stroop task. Both mPFC and STN showed significant increases in theta activities (2-8 Hz) in incongruent trials compared to the congruent trials. The theta activity in incongruent trials also demonstrated significantly increased phase synchronization between mPFC and STN. Furthermore, the amplitude of gamma oscillation was modulated by the phase of theta activity at the STN in incongruent trials. Such theta-gamma phase-amplitude coupling (PAC) was much stronger for incongruent trials with faster reaction times than those with slower reaction times. Elevated theta-gamma PAC in the STN provides a novel mechanism by which the STN may operationalize its proposed “hold-your-horses” role. The co-occurrence of mPFC-STN theta phase synchronization and STN theta-gamma PAC reflects a neural substrate for fronto-subthalamic communication during conflict processing. More broadly, it may be a general mechanism for neuronal interactions in the cortico-basal ganglia circuits via a combination of long-range, within-frequency phase synchronization and local cross-frequency PAC.

Background Impairments in the ability to recognize facial affective expressions may lead to social dysfunction and difficulties with interpersonal communication. Objective The objective was to compare the attentional responses on a Stroop emotional task using words and faces by testing whether the two stimuli differ in the degree of interference they produce in patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD). Methods There were 75 participants: 25 healthy older adults, 25 with mild AD, and 25 with moderate AD. A variation of the classic emotional Stroop test was administered. This task combined emotional words (happy or sad) superimposed on facial expressions (happy or sad), where the words were either incongruent or congruent with the emotion expressed by the face stimuli. Results Facilitation was shown on negative words in healthy older adults, and significant effects were obtained for condition, valence, group, and the condition x group interaction. Although less interference was observed on negative stimuli, the fastest reaction times were found for congruent positive stimuli. The effect of interference in healthy older adults is similar in both conditions. However, in the AD groups, there is less interference on the words task than on the faces task. Conclusion The more complex nature of faces, as opposed to the over-learning and automaticity of words, may explain the higher interference in AD patients in the faces condition. In patients with AD, words can be a better method for recognizing emotions than affective facial expressions.

Inhibition processing is an inherent part of cognitive and behavioral control. The aim of the present study was to develop and investigate psychometric criteria of an experimental paradigm that combines Stroop interference and negative priming, both of which involve inhibitory processes. We adopted a Stroop matching paradigm assessing interference control and implemented a negative priming condition. A nonclinical community sample of 94 volunteers performed this Stroop Negative Priming Matching paradigm. Since timing plays a role in priming, the interval between the prime and the probe has been varied in length (500 ms, 800 ms, and 3000 ms). The main results showed both, effects of Stroop interference and negative priming, as indicated by reaction times and incorrect responses. Reduced time pressure showed an effect on response speed and accuracy, but no interaction with interference and priming effects occurred. Reliability computed as internal consistency was generally high and did not differ between Stroop interference and negative priming scales. Retest-reliability was best for the prime–probe interval of 3000 ms. Concluding, the Stroop negative priming matching task provides reliable and directly comparable assessment of Stroop interference and negative priming effects.