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Fertility has become a priority in transgender health research. In this issue of Cell Reports Medicine, a study by de Nie et al. 1 of nine transgender women demonstrates sperm production after the cessation of gender-affirming hormone therapy (GAHT). Their results suggest the transient nature of gonadal suppression by GAHT., Competing Interests: Declaration of interests The authors declare no competing interests., (Copyright © 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A general survey comments on the problems of andrology as a special medica discipline. A retrospective and an outlook concerning the different future possibilities of andrology is given. Special emphasis is placed on: examination of the ejaculate, morphology of the testicles, andrological training and further education; in the discussion of the future prospects special consideration is given to the responsibility of andrologists--also with respect to in-vitro-fertilization--and the significance of andrology for the inhabitants of the Third World.

Abstract Testicular torsion is a common disorder in males and results in blockage of testicular circulation with subsequent damage of testicular germ cells. The current work aimed to compare the therapeutic effect of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) and injectable platelet-rich fibrin (i-PRF) on torsion/detorsion (T/D) injury in rats. Forty mature male Wister rats were arranged into 4 groups; (1) Control, (2) T/D, (3) T/D + PRP, and (4) T/D+ i-PRF. The right testis was twisting 1080° clockwise for 3 h in groups 2, 3 and 4, then 10 μl of PRP or i-PRF was injected intra-testicular 3 h after detorsion in groups 3 and 4, respectively. After 30 days postoperatively, the semen quality and hormonal assay were improved in PRP and i-PRF-treated groups with superiority of i-PRF (P

Abstract Cryopreservation is crucial for conserving genetic diversity in endangered species including the critically endangered group of sturgeons (Acipenseridae), but it can compromise sperm quality and protein profiles. Although cryopreservation with dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and methanol (MeOH) results in the recovery of good post-thaw motility, DMSO-preserved sperm show reduced fertilization ability. This study was conducted in Siberian sturgeon as a model for Acipenserid fishes to explore the effects of DMSO and MeOH on the proteome of semen using advanced proteomics methods—liquid chromatography‒mass spectrometry and two-dimensional difference gel electrophoresis. We analyzed the proteomic profiles of fresh and cryopreserved spermatozoa and their extracellular medium and showed that cryopreservation decreases motility and viability and increases reactive oxygen species levels, membrane fluidity, and acrosome damage. Despite having similar post-thaw semen motility, sperm treated with DMSO had significantly lower fertilization success (6.2%) than those treated with MeOH (51.2%). A total of 224 and 118 differentially abundant proteins were identified in spermatozoa preserved with MeOH and DMSO, respectively. MeOH-related proteins were linked to chromosomal structure and mitochondrial functionality, while DMSO-related proteins impacted fertilization by altering the acrosome reaction and binding of sperm to the zona pellucida and nuclear organization. Additionally, cryopreservation led to alterations in the proacrosin/acrosin system in both cryoprotectants. This study provides the first comprehensive proteomic characterization of Siberian sturgeon sperm after cryopreservation, offering insights into how cryoprotectants impact fertilization ability.

Abstract Objectives Bovine seminal plasma proteins perform several functions related to sperm function. Changes in the expression pattern or abundance of seminal proteins are related to changes in the fertilizing capacity of bulls. Considering the role of seminal plasma proteins in sperm function and animal reproduction, we investigated changes in the protein abundance profile in response to sperm morphological changes using a proteomic approach. Datadescription In our present investigation, we employed liquid chromatography coupled with mass spectrometry to elucidate the proteomic composition of seminal plasma obtained from Nellore bulls exhibiting varying percentages of sperm abnormalities. Following semen collection, seminal plasma was promptly isolated from sperm, and proteins were subsequently precipitated, enzymatically digested using porcine trypsin, and subjected to analysis utilizing the Acquity nano UHPLC System in conjunction with a mass spectrometer. This dataset encompasses a total of 297 proteins, marking the inaugural instance in which a comparative profile of seminal plasma proteins in young Nellore bulls, categorized by their sperm abnormality percentages, has been delineated using LC-MS/MS. The comprehensive nature of this dataset contributes pivotal proteomic insights, representing a noteworthy advancement in our understanding of the reproductive biology of the Nellore breed.

Abstract Sperm membrane composition and biophysical characteristics play a pivotal role in many physiological processes (i.e. sperm motility, capacitation, acrosome reaction and fusion with the oocyte) as well as in semen processing (e.g. cryopreservation). The aim of this study was to characterize the fatty acid content and biophysical characteristics (anisotropy, generalized polarization) of the cell membrane of domestic cat spermatozoa. Semen was collected from 34 adult male cats by urethral catheterization. After a basic semen evaluation, the fatty acid content of some of the samples (n = 11) was evaluated by gas chromatography. Samples from other individuals (n = 23) were subjected to biophysical analysis: membrane anisotropy (which is inversely proportional to membrane fluidity) and generalized polarization (describing lipid order); both measured by fluorimetry at three temperature points: 38 °C, 25 °C and 5 °C. Spermatozoa from some samples (n = 10) were cryopreserved in TRIS egg yolk-glycerol extender and underwent the same biophysical analysis after thawing. Most fatty acids in feline spermatozoa were saturated (69.76 ± 24.45%), whereas the polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA) content was relatively low (6.12 ± 5.80%). Lowering the temperature caused a significant decrease in membrane fluidity and an increase in generalized polarization in fresh spermatozoa, and these effects were even more pronounced following cryopreservation. Anisotropy at 38 °C in fresh samples showed strong positive correlations with viability and motility parameters after thawing. In summary, feline spermatozoa are characterized by a very low PUFA content and a low ratio of unsaturated:saturated fatty acids, which may contribute to low oxidative stress. Cryopreservation alters the structure of the sperm membrane, increasing the fluidity of the hydrophobic portion of the bilayer and the lipid order in the hydrophilic portion. Because lower membrane fluidity in fresh semen was linked with better viability and motility after cryopreservation, this parameter may be considered an important factor in determination of sperm cryoresistance.

At present, there are few reports about the proteomics changes provoked by butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) supplementation on cryopreserved semen in mammals. Thus, we aimed to evaluate the effects of different concentrations of BHT on goat sperm and to investigate the proteomics changes of adding BHT to cryopreserved goat (Capra hircus) sperm. Firstly, semen samples were collected from four goats, and frozen in the basic extenders containing different concentrations of BHT (0.5 mM, 1.0 mM, 2.0 mM) and a control without BHT, respectively. After thawing, the protective effects of dose-dependent replenished BHT to the freezing medium on post-thaw sperm motility, integrities of plasma membrane and acrosome, reactive oxygen species levels were confirmed, with 0.5 mM BHT being the best (B group) as compared to the control (without BHT, C group). Afterwards, TMT-based quantitative proteomic technique was performed to profile proteome of the goat sperm between C group and B group. Parallel reaction monitoring was used to confirm reliability of the data. Overall, 2,476 proteins were identified and quantified via this approach. Comparing the C and B groups directly (C vs. B), there were 17 differentially abundant proteins (DAPs) po-tentially associated with sperm characteristics and functions were identified, wherein three were upregulated and 14 were downregulated, respectively. GO annotation analysis demonstrated the potential involvement of the identified DAPs in metabolic process, multi-organism process, reproduction, reproductive process, and cellular process. KEGG enrichment analysis further indicated their potential roles in renin-angiotensin system and glutathione metabolism pathways. Together, this novel study clearly shows that BHT can effectively improve quality parameters and fertility potential of post-thawed goat sperm at the optimal concentration, and its cryoprotection may be realized through regulation of sperm metabolism and antioxidative capability from the perspective of sperm proteomic modification.

Objective: To investigate the effect of Moringa oleifera leaf extract on semen quality parameters in Teressa goat buck. Methods: A total of 25 semen samples from six bucks were selected for the study. Spermatozoa of 150× 106 were incubated in 0, 300, 500 and 700 μg of leaf extract as group I, II, III and IV, respectively. Liquid stored semen samples were analysed for motility, viability, total sperm abnormalities, plasma membrane, acrosomal and nuclear integrities, seminal plasma intracellular enzymes [aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH)] and total antioxidant capacity (TAC) and spermatozoa malondialdehyde (MDA) and cholesterol efflux in comparison with the control group (group I) for up to 72 h. Results: Moringa oleifera leaf extract (500 μg/150× 106 spermatozoa)-treated semen had significantly higher motility, viability, plasma membrane, acrosomal and nuclear integrities, and TAC (P

Objective To explore the feasibility of genetic marker detection of semen-specific coding region single nucleotide polymorphism （cSNP） based on SNaPshot technology in semen stains and mixed body fluid identification. Methods Genomic DNA （gDNA） and total RNA were extracted from 16 semen stains and 11 mixtures composed of semen and venous blood, and the total RNA was reverse transcribed into complementary DNA （cDNA）. The cSNP genetic markers were screened on the validated semen-specific mRNA coding genes. The cSNP multiplex detection system based on SNaPshot technology was established, and samples were genotyped by capillary electrophoresis （CE）. Results A multiplex detection system containing 5 semen-specific cSNPs was successfully established. In 16 semen samples, except the cSNP located in the TGM4 gene showed allele loss in cDNA detection results, the gDNA and cDNA typing results of other cSNPs were highly consistent. When detecting semen-venous blood mixtures, the results of cSNP typing detected were consistent with the genotype of semen donor and were not interfered by the genotype of venous blood donor. Conclusion The method of semen-specific cSNPs detection by SNaPshot technology method can be applied to the genotyping of semen （stains） and provide information for determining the origin of semen in mixed body fluids （stains）.

BackgroundDe novo mutations underlie individually rare but collectively common pediatric congenital disorders. Some of these mutations can also be detected in tissues and from cells in a parent, where their abundance and tissue distribution can be measured. We previously reported that a subset of these mutations is detectable in sperm from the father, predicted to impact the health of offspring.MethodsAs a cohort study, in three independent couples undergoing in vitro fertilization, we first identified male gonadal mosaicism through deep whole genome sequencing. We then confirmed variants and assessed their transmission to preimplantation blastocysts (32 total) through targeted ultra-deep genotyping.ResultsAcross 55 gonadal mosaic variants, 15 were transmitted to blastocysts for a total of 19 transmission events. This represented an overall predictable but slight undertransmission based upon the measured mutational abundance in sperm. We replicated this conclusion in an independent, previously published family-based cohort.ConclusionsUnbiased preimplantation genetic testing for gonadal mosaicism may represent a feasible approach to reduce the transmission of potentially harmful de novo mutations. This-in turn-could help to reduce their impact on miscarriages and pediatric disease.FundingNo external funding was received for this work.

Background: The natural capability to produce offspring is termed as fertility. As the growing world is flourishing with modern means and advances in technology, there is a sharp fall in the birth rate all over. Many developing countries including India are now struggling with this issue. Bacterial infection of the male genitourinary tract is one of the key factors responsible for male infertility. These pathogenic bacteria induce an alteration in semen parameters, such as sperm count, morphology, and motility which are predictors of male fertility potential. Material and Methods: This is a retrospective descriptive observational study and includes culture reports of 388 semen samples of adult men attending the infertility clinics over a 3-year study period. Sample inoculation was done on culture media plates and incubated for 18–24 h at 37°C. Culture identification and antibiotic susceptibility testing were done using VITEK 2-automated system. Result: Eighty-one samples showed growth of single isolate and were further processed. The majority of the patients were 26–30 years of age, followed by 31–35 years. Gram-positive isolates outnumbered the gram-negative isolates (58% vs. 42.0%). The antimicrobial susceptibility pattern of gram-negative isolates showed maximum resistance against third-generation cephalosporins (70.6%), followed by cotrimoxazole (54.5%) and flouroquinolones (50.0%). Amongst gram-positive isolates, high degree of resistance was observed against tetracycline (89.4%) and fluoroquinolones (72.3%). Conclusion: Urogenital infections in males have been found to be associated with a reduction in fertility. Though these patients may be completely asymptomatic, these infections are known to reduce the sperm counts and motility. Proper bacteriological profiling of these patients is thus an important part of diagnostic workup.

Purpose: Despite the significant role of varicocele in the pathogenesis of male infertility, the impact of varicocele repair (VR) on conventional semen parameters remains controversial. Only a few systematic reviews and meta-analyses (SRMAs) have evaluated the impact of VR on sperm concentration, total motility, and progressive motility, mostly using a before-after analytic approach. No SRMA to date has evaluated the change in conventional semen parameters after VR compared to untreated controls. This study aimed to evaluate the effect of VR on conventional semen parameters in infertile patients with clinical varicocele compared to untreated controls. Materials and Methods: A literature search was performed using Scopus, PubMed, Embase, and Cochrane databases following the Population Intervention Comparison Outcome (PICOS) model (Population: infertile patients with clinical varicocele; Intervention: VR [any technique]; Comparison: infertile patients with clinical varicocele that were untreated; Outcome: sperm concentration, sperm total count, progressive sperm motility, total sperm motility, sperm morphology, and semen volume; Study type: randomized controlled trials and observational studies). Results: A total of 1,632 abstracts were initially assessed for eligibility. Sixteen studies were finally included with a total of 2,420 infertile men with clinical varicocele (1,424 patients treated with VR vs. 996 untreated controls). The analysis showed significantly improved post-operative semen parameters in patients compared to controls with regards to sperm concentration (standardized mean difference [SMD] 1.739; 95% CI 1.129 to 2.349; p

Introduction and objective: Many scientific reports confirm a systematic decline in male semen parameters over the last decades. This phenomenon has been observed in all parts of the world, and its occurrence is associated, among others, with the hazardous effects of some environmental factors. The environmental factors for which the adverse effect on male fertility has been proven include water, air, and soil pollution, as well as electromagnetic fields and ionizing radiation. The aim of this article was the evaluation of the effect of selected environmental factors on male reproductive capacity based on an analysis of the current scientific reports. Review methods: A systematic literature review was carried out using three databases: PubMed, EMBASE, and Scopus. The search was limited to the period from 2015 until the end of December 2023. Brief description of the state of knowledge: Environmental factors, such as heavy metals, tobacco smoke, pesticides, dioxins, furans, phthalates, and bisphenols, are well-tested substances that exert an adverse effect on male fertility. A harmful effect of electromagnetic fields and water and air pollution on reproductive functions may be expected; however, this has not been fully proven. Summary: Results obtained by many researchers published to date should evoke great concern regarding the quality of the environment in which we live, as well as fears about the effect of environmental factors not only on male fertility, but also on all aspects of human health. The majority of environmental pollutants affect the male body by causing oxidative stress and through their effect on the endocrine system.

Introduction: In recent years, there have been more and more concerns about whether wearing mobile phones near the reproductive organs, including the testicles, may cause significant health consequences, such as sperm dysfunction, decreased semen production, impaired testicular morphology, and thus become the cause of male infertility. Determining the relationship between the electromagnetic radiation of mobile phones and infertility in men may in the future reduce the male factor in the problem of infertility of couples and thus improve the quality of life. Aim of the study: The aim of this review is to attempt to assess the impact of radiofrequency electromagnetic radiation emitted from mobile phones on male reproductive organs in the context of male fertility disorders. Materials and methods: The work was created based on the PubMed database. Articles were searched in English using the following keywords: mobile phone, testes, male infertility, electromagnetic radiation. Description of the state of knowledge: Changes in semen parameters, including reduced motility and changes in sperm morphology, have been reported in animal studies. Features of damage to living cells under the influence of oxidative stress generated by GSM radiation were also observed. Similar phenomena have been reported in vitro in human semen samples and in clinical trials in men. Summary: There are not enough studies providing strong evidence for the direct negative effect of mobile phones on male fertility. It is necessary to conduct more research in order to eliminate other factors that could potentially change the results of the analyses, as well as to standardize the test methods and the test variables.

Introduction: Varicocele is a treatable aetiology of male infertility. Magnification with surgical loupe has been associated with improved outcome and reduced morbidity than the conventional technique without magnification. Objective: To compare the outcomes of two techniques of subinguinal varicocelectomy, with a surgical loupe and without. Patients and Methods: This was a prospective randomised hospital-based study. Forty-six patients were randomised to two arms – Group A: loupe-assisted subinguinal varicocelectomy (LASV) and Group B: open subinguinal varicocelectomy without Loupe (OSV). They all had their semen and hormonal parameters compared preoperatively and at 3 and 6 months postoperatively. Post-operative complications were also assessed. P < 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results: The mean age was 38.28 ± 4.55 years with a range of 27–46 years. The mean age in Group A was 37.35 ± 4.68 and 39.22 ± 4.33 years in Group B. There was an improvement in motility, sperm count and concentration in both the groups at 3 and 6 months (P < 0.05). However, there was no difference in these parameters on comparison of the two groups at 3 and 6 months (P > 0.05). Follicle-stimulating hormone decline was significant in the OSV group at 3 and 6 months, P = 0.010 and 0.021, respectively. There was no difference in other hormonal parameters both at 3 and 6 months (P > 0.05). The pregnancy rate in each arm of study was 4.3%. All complications occurred in Group B. Conclusion: Both techniques resulted in improvement in seminal fluid parameters. All complications occurred in the arm that had subinguinal varicocelectomy without loupe. Loupe-assisted subinguinal varicocelectomy is safe and effective.

The emergence of a new coronavirus, officially referred to as severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2 ), has challenged all healthcare workers and clinicians worldwide. The presence of the virus in biological fluids including the semen has raised some concerns about infertility treatment. There is evidence that SARS-CoV-2, which causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), can damage the male reproductive system following the inflammatory process caused by the cytokine storm. However, the direct and long-term effects of SARS-CoV-2 on fertility and the reproductive capacity of the human testis are still open to controversy. The lasting presence of the virus, even after a complete recovery, can increase the risk of sexual transmission and adversely affect the male reproductive system, sexual function, and fertility. Therefore, there is a need for a careful assessment of reproductive organs and testicular function in male patients. This study aimed to evaluate the invasive effect of SARS-CoV-2 on the testis and male reproduction.

ObjectiveTo establish a system for simultaneous detection of miR-888 and miR-891a by droplet digital PCR （ddPCR）, and to evaluate its application value in semen identification.MethodsThe hydrolysis probes with different fluorescence modified reporter groups were designed to realize the detection of miR-888 and miR-891a by duplex ddPCR. A total of 75 samples of 5 body fluids （including peripheral blood, menstrual blood, semen, saliva and vaginal secretion） were detected. The difference analysis was conducted by Mann-Whitney U test. The semen differentiation ability of miR-888 and miR-891a was evaluated by ROC curve analysis and the optimal cut-off value was obtained.ResultsThere was no significant difference between the dual-plex assay and the single assay in this system. The detection sensitivity was up to 0.1 ng total RNA, and the intra- and inter-batch coefficients of variation were less than 15%. The expression levels of miR-888 and miR-891a detected by duplex ddPCR in semen were both higher than those in other body fluids. ROC curve analysis showed that the AUC of miR-888 was 0.976, the optimal cut-off value was 2.250 copies/μL, and the discrimination accuracy was 97.33%; the AUC of miR-891a was 1.000, the optimal cut-off value was 1.100 copies/μL, and the discrimination accuracy was 100%.ConclusionIn this study, a method for detection of miR-888 and miR-891a by duplex ddPCR was successfully established. The system has good stability and repeatability and can be used for semen identification. Both miR-888 and miR-891a have high ability to identify semen, and the discrimination accuracy of miR-891a is higher.

Purpose: Azoospermia is defined as the absence of spermatozoa in the pellet of a centrifuged semen sample. In fact, when a basic semen analysis fails to detect sperm in the ejaculate, there is still the possibility of detecting rare sperm after centrifugation of the sample and examination of the pellet. In this study, we assessed the role of Cytospin centrifugation in combination with the nuclear fast picroindigocarmine (NF-PIC) staining in identifying sperm in azoospermic samples. Materials and Methods: Semen samples of 251 men diagnosed as having azoospermia after standard examination were further analyzed by Cytospin centrifugation in combination with NF-PIC staining. Results: Sperm were detected in 60 men (23.9%), thus changing their diagnosis to cryptozoospermia. Conclusions: By identifying sperm in the semen of men who were thought to have total azoospermia, the Cytospin NF-PIC test can alter the diagnosis and further treatment of these men.

Purpose:Purpose: The success of vasectomy is determined by the outcome of a post-vasectomy semen analysis (PVSA). This article describes a step-by-step procedure to perform PVSA accurately, report data from patients who underwent post vasectomy se-men analysis between 2015 and 2021 experience, along with results from an international online survey on clinical practice. Materials and Methods:Materials and Methods: We present a detailed step-by-step protocol for performing and interpretating PVSA testing, along with recommendations for proficiency testing, competency assessment for performing PVSA, and clinical and laboratory sce-narios. Moreover, we conducted an analysis of 1,114 PVSA performed at the Cleveland Clinic’s Andrology Laboratory and an online survey to understand clinician responses to the PVSA results in various countries. Results:Results: Results from our clinical experience showed that 92.1% of patients passed PVSA, with 7.9% being further tested. A total of 78 experts from 19 countries participated in the survey, and the majority reported to use time from vasectomy rather than the number of ejaculations as criterion to request PVSA. A high percentage of responders reported permitting unpro-tected intercourse only if PVSA samples show azoospermia while, in the presence of few non-motile sperm, the majority of responders suggested using alternative contraception, followed by another PVSA. In the presence of motile sperm, the major-ity of participants asked for further PVSA testing. Repeat vasectomy was mainly recommended if motile sperm were observed after multiple PVSA’s. A large percentage reported to recommend a second PVSA due to the possibility of legal actions. Conclusions:Conclusions: Our results highlighted varying clinical practices around the globe, with controversy over the significance of non-motile sperm in the PVSA sample. Our data suggest that less stringent AUA guidelines would help improve test compli-ance. A large longitudinal multi-center study would clarify various doubts related to timing and interpretation of PVSA and would also help us to understand, and perhaps predict, recanalization and the potential for future failure of a vasectomy.

Background and objectives: Semen cryopreservation is widely used in assisted reproduction techniques, and reliable semen analysis is essential to define the clinical practice. However, many parameters used for semen evaluation have high variability among technicians. Here, we describe a method of validating semen analysis prior to cryopreservation, comparing each operator’s results with an expert, and also analyzing inter-operator variability. As a second endpoint, we compare this method by analyzing semen parameters before and after cryopreservation. Methods: Four professional trainees studied and practiced semen analysis according to the World Health Organization guidelines for one month, under supervision of an expert in the field. Next, microscopic results (sperm concentration, motility, vitality, and morphology) obtained by each team member were compared with the findings obtained by the expert.. Finally, analyzes of inter-operators were evaluated for the same parameters. Results: The findings obtained by the operators and the expert did not differ significantly. Furthermore, in the inter-operator analysis, the morphology parameter differed significantly in the fresh semen sample, which was not observed in the post-thaw sample. Conclusion: Our results indicated that the laboratory staff training for semen analysis was effective, ensuring the assessment of individual performance and uniformity among operators in sperm count parameters, producing consistent results.

Objective: To investigate the effects of non-permeable cryoprotectant, cholesterol-loaded cyclodextrin, when added at different concentrations into cooled and frozen-thawed semen extended with Tris-citrate-fructose egg yolk glycerol and lecithin-based extenders. Methods: A total of 40 ejaculates from four buffalo bulls were collected using artificial vagina. Ejaculates were extended with one of Tris-citrate-fructose egg yolk glycerol and lecithin-based extenders which contained different concentrations [0 (control), 0.75, 1.50, 2.25 and 3.00 mg/mL] of cholesterol-loaded cyclodextrin. The extended semen samples were cooled to 5 °C and then frozen slowly to -196 °C in 0.25 mL ministraws before being stored in liquid nitrogen pending its evaluation. Sperm motility, live sperm, normal sperm morphology, sperm membrane integrity and acrosome morphology were measured. Results: Supplementation of cholesterol-loaded cyclodextrin improved progressive motility, viability, morphology and acrosome as well as plasma membrane integrities at 1.50-2.25 mg/mL depending upon types of used extenders and stages of pre- and post-freezing process (P

Introduction: Infertility is defined as the inability to conceive a child for at least 12 months of regular unprotected intercourse and may affect up to 15% of couples of reproductive age. Reduced semen quality may be caused by trauma, inflammation, or an inappropriate lifestyle. Research suggests that diet may be a factor in influencing sperm parameters. Material and methods: The literature of the PubMed scientific base was searched in 2015-2022 using the following keywords: semen, diet, infertility. Results: Analyzes of eating patterns showed that eating a diet high in red meat, high-fat dairy, sweet energy drinks, and snacks could negatively affect semen, and a pattern based on the consumption of fish, chicken, vegetables, fruits, legumes, and whole grains was associated with with an increased concentration of sperm. A high-fat diet (HFD) leads to obesity, endocrine disorders, dysbiosis of the intestinal microflora, and may be a factor that activates autophagy, which results in reduced sperm quality. A ketogenic diet can positively affect the semen of obese, infertile men. Studies analyzing the Mediterranean diet suggest that higher compliance rates are associated with a higher percentage of mobility as well as a reduced risk of low sperm concentration. The way you prepare your meals can also play a role as glycation end products are produced when grilling, baking and frying, which can damage sperm DNA. Conclusions: Diet may be an important factor influencing the quality of sperm in men, however, there is a need for further extensive, multi-center studies that will systematize this knowledge, which will enable the creation of specific nutritional recommendations for this group of people.

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), as a severe respiratory disease, affects various tissues and organs. The specific SARS-CoV-2 receptor, angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2), is highly expressed in male gonads. Thus, male reproductive tissues could be a potential target for virus colonization. We performed a comprehensive search in PubMed and Google Scholar to retrieve relevant articles published till 15 April 2021. The keywords used were: male fertility, male reproductive health, semen parameters, sex hormones, SARS-CoV-2, and COVID-19. Validated evidence about the adverse effects of the SARS-CoV-2 infection on the male reproductive system is limited and few studies have reported semen analysis results or presence of viral RNA in semen samples of infected men. Nevertheless, alterations in reproductive hormones such as decreased level of testosterone (T) with raised luteinizing hormone (LH) have been reported in some patients. Although the impact of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the male reproduction health remains unclear, evidence suggests that male gonads may be potentially vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 infection. In this article, we discussed the possible impacts of COVID-19 on male gonads, sex hormones, and semen quality and suggested preventive solutions.

Aim: Given the increasing usage of cell phones (6.9 billion subscriptions globally) and heterogeneous reports, this study aimed to determine the cell phone effect as non-ionizing radiation on the level of testosterone hormone and sperm parameters in male rats. Material and Methods: Twenty-five matured male Wistar rats were randomly allocated to five groups with the same body weights. Radiofrequency radiation for the exposed groups was 1 h/day call, 2 h/day call, and 50 missed calls/day in 30 days. The other two groups were control (out of any radiation) and positive control (exposed to γ-radiation) groups. Sperm parameters (motility, morphology, viability, counting), histopathology, and serum level of testosterone were measured and analyzed. Results: According to the results, the sperm viability significantly decreased compared to the control group (p

Purpose: The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) pandemic has created a surge of research to help better understand the breadth of possible sequelae. However, little is known regarding the impact on semen parameters and fertility potential. We sought to investigate for presence of viral RNA in semen of men with SARS-CoV-2 infection and to evaluate its effect on semen parameters in ejaculate. MMaatteerriaiallss aanndd M Meetthhooddss:: We prospectively recruited thirty men diagnosed with acute SARS-CoV-2 infection using real-time re-verse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) of pharyngeal swab specimens. Semen samples were collected from each individual using mailed kits. Follow-up semen samples were done with mailed kits or in-person in office setting. Semen analysis and PCR was performed after samples were received. Results:Results: Thirty semen samples from recovered men were obtained 11–64 days after testing positive for SAR-CoV-2 infection. The median duration between positive SAR-CoV-2 test and semen collection was 37 days (interquartile range [IQR]=23). The median total sperm number (TSN) in ejaculate was 12.5 million (IQR=52.1). When compared with age-matched SARS-CoV-2(-) men, TSN was lower among SARS-CoV-2(+) men (p=0.0024). Five men completed a follow-up sperm analysis (me-dian 3 months) and had a median TSN of 18 million (IQR=21.6). No RNA was detected by means of RT-PCR in the semen in 16 samples tested. Conclusions:Conclusions: SARS-CoV-2 infection, though not detected in semen of recovered men, can affect TSN in ejaculate in the acute setting. Whether SARS-CoV-2 can affect spermatogenic function long-term remains to be evaluated.

Objectives Leucocytospermia is a rare cause of infertility with a variable incidence in infertile men. In many andrology laboratories, semen analysis is primarily centered on analyzing basic parameters (sperm count, motility, and viability). We examined the role of cytomorphological analysis on Papanicolaou (PAP)-stained smears in the work up of male infertility, with special reference to leukocytospermia and assessed the morphological features of sperms in these cases. Materials and Methods All cases signed out as “leukocytospermia” between November 2017 and January 2018 were evaluated. Cases showing pus cells (≥ 1/5hpf) on cytosmear evaluation were also analyzed. Parameters obtained on modified Neubauer’s chamber, wet mount preparations, and autoanalyzer SQA-IIC-P (Medical Electronic Systems, Israel) were tabulated. PAP-stained smears were examined to assess morphological defects and other findings, if any. Results Out of 348 semen samples, 6 (1.72%) were diagnosed as leukocytospermia, all displaying pus cells on cytomorphological evaluation. Five cases having white blood cells < 1 × 10 9/L were analyzed, which displayed the presence of pus cells (≥ 1/5 hpf) on cytosmear preparations (1.43%). Nine cases (81.8%) showed reduced motile sperm concentration, functional sperm concentration, and sperm motility index. Morphological evaluation of the PAP-stained smears showed mid-piece defects in 18.1% cases. Conclusion Diligent cytomorphological evaluation of semen is essential to diagnose leukocytospermia, assess morphological defects, and serve as a quality control measure.

Unlike other human biological fluids, semen contains multiple types of amyloid fibrils in the absence of disease. These fibrils enhance HIV infection by promoting viral fusion to cellular targets, but their natural function remained unknown. The similarities shared between HIV fusion to host cell and sperm fusion to oocyte led us to examine whether these fibrils promote fertilization. Surprisingly, the fibrils inhibited fertilization by immobilizing sperm. Interestingly, however, this immobilization facilitated uptake and clearance of sperm by macrophages, which are known to infiltrate the female reproductive tract (FRT) following semen exposure. In the presence of semen fibrils, damaged and apoptotic sperm were more rapidly phagocytosed than healthy ones, suggesting that deposition of semen fibrils in the lower FRT facilitates clearance of poor-quality sperm. Our findings suggest that amyloid fibrils in semen may play a role in reproduction by participating in sperm selection and facilitating the rapid removal of sperm antigens.

Background: many doubts about the infection of SARS-CoV-2 were raised, such as sexual transmission, sterility, and changes in fertility procedures; however, information is not clearly stated and organized. Purpose: to review and summarize scientific evidence on detection of SARS-CoV-2 in semen samples of Covid-19 patients. Methods: literature search in PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, Medline and Embase databases, and followed Scoping Review protocol defined by Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) after the guiding question “Is it possible to detect SARS-CoV-2 in the semen of adult patients with a confirmed diagnosis of Covid-19?” Results: 287 studies were identified, and, after discerning analysis, 9 studies published in the English language were selected. Three researchers analyzed the studies for SARS-CoV-2 presence in the seminal fluid, patients’ severity, days since the onset of disease, diagnosis confirmation, semen collection method, viral analysis method, and sample numbers. Conclusions: it was not possible to find strong evidence to confirm the presence or absence of Covid-19 in the semen of adult patients. New studies on the subject should be better designed, taking into account the possible anatomical and functional conditions and changes of the male reproductive system during and after the infection by SARS-CoV-2.

Background: Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are of the most important detrimental factors on sperm quality during freezing process, which increases the lipid peroxidation (LPO) of cell membranes. In this study, the concentration of malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in semen of men with oligospermia before and after cryopreservation process was measured to evaluate the effect of folic acid and nicotinic acid on the MDA concentration after freezing. Methods: In this experimental study, semen fluid sample was collected from 25 men with oligospermia in age range of 25-45 years. Each sample was divided into 5 groups: Fresh group, Freeze group without antioxidants (control), Freeze group with nicotinic acid (10 mM), Freeze group with folic acid (50 nM), and Freeze group with a combination of nicotinic acid (10 mm) + folic acid (50 nM). The concentration of MDA in nmol/ml was measured in each group with spectrophotometer at 535 nm. Findings: The mean concentration of MDA in semen increased after freezing (1.73 ± 0.12) compared to before freezing (0.45 ± 0.02) (P < 0.001). Mean concentration of MDA in the group of folic acid + nicotinic acid (0.68 ± 0.06) was lower compared to other groups after freezing (P ± 0.001). Conclusion: The combination of folic acid and nicotinic acid antioxidants with sperm freezing medium reduces the level of MDA and LPO of sperm membrane during freezing process, and thereby maintains the fertility potential in men with oligospermia.

Objective: To characterize the semen of three genetic types of boars (local, improved and Large White) reared in Benin. Methods: Semen of local, improved and Large White boars reared in Benin were collected using the gloved hand method and analyzed to determine volume, pH, concentration, mobility, motility, and morphology. The effect of the genetic type of boar on semen characteristics was aslo studied. Results: Duration of ejaculation and semen volume of Large White boar were significantly higher than those of local and improved boars (P

Objective: To determine the in-vitro effect of the total alkaloid extract of Peganum (P.) harmala seeds on ram epididymal sperm. Methods: Semen was divided into six groups according to the following concentrations of the P. harmala total alkaloids: 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 μg/mL, and the control group. The samples were incubated at ambient temperature (21 °C-24 °C) for 24 h, and analyzed in terms of motility, membrane integrity, and oxidative status. Results: The sperm kinematic parameters, i.e. straight-line velocity, curvilinear velocity, average path velocity, were significantly higher when treated with P. harmala at concentrations ranging from 1 to 10 μg/mL compared to the control group (P0.05). Conclusions: Low concentrations (1-10 μg/mL) of P. harmala extracts stimulate sperm motility, preserve membrane integrity and protect ram spermatozoa from lipid peroxidation.

Aristotle’s theory of seed has occupied a very important place in the history of ancient embryology and medicine. Previous studies have overemphasized, in light of the APo. II method, Aristotle’s definition of seed as male semen. In this paper, I wish to show that there are at least three independent definitions of seed working in Aristotle’s Generation of Animals: seed as male semen, seed as female menstruation and seed as embryo. Those three definitions are mutually exclusive on the one hand, but on the other hand, they are also capable of being unified into one Aristotelian account, which can help us understand better Aristotle’s theory of seed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: Since its discovery in December 2019, the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 has spread globally, causing the current COVID-19 (coronavirus disease-19) pandemic. As there is an increase of infections in the male population, concerns have emerged about the potential impact of COVID-19 on male reproductive organs and male fertility. Therefore, this study systematically investigates the current evidence of SARS-CoV-2 impact on male reproduction and pregnancy outcomes, discussing them in light of the evidence published on other coronaviruses. Materials and Methods: Literature search was carried out according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. A total of 24 original articles were included for the analysis, investigating the effects of the infection on semen parameters, male reproductive hormones, and pregnancy outcomes. Further, a Strengths-Weaknesses- Opportunities-Threats (SWOT) analysis was conducted based on the available evidence linking the virus with male reproduction and conception. Results: Although there is limited data, viral mRNA has been identified in semen of infected men, with some evidence of altered seminal parameters. Low testosterone and dihydrotestosterone with raised luteinizing hormone has been reported as well as preterm delivery in pregnant women; however, data regarding vertical transmission remains contradictory and inconclusive. Conclusions: The recent literature provides evidence that male gonads may be potentially vulnerable to SARS-CoV-2 infection, recommending caution to pregnant women and couples planning natural pregnancy or assisted reproduction.

The prevalence and importance of male infertility make it a serious worldwide medical and social problem. The aim of this study was to determine if there were any significant differences in zinc concentrations in seminal fluid in men diagnosed with infertility compared to control group, and if there were, to determine how it affected the number and percentage of sperm cells with normal motility and morphology. A case-control study was conducted in the Osijek-Baranja County from January 2014 to June of 2015. The study included 276 subjects referred to biochemistry laboratory of the Osijek University Hospital Centre, 100 (36.2%) of them with low sperm count confirmed by spermiogram after 3 months. Semen samples were processed according to the World Health Organization criteria, and zinc concentrations were determined using spectrophotometry and direct colorimetry without deproteinization on a chemistry analyzer (Olympus AU 680, Beckman Coulter, Tokyo, Japan). Study results showed the men with low sperm count to be significantly older (Mann Whitney U test: p=0.013) and to have lower zinc levels (χ2-test: p

Objective: To establish reference values for pixel intensity of testicular ultrasonogram of rams in breeding and non-breeding seasons, and to investigate if the seasonal changes in testicular echogenicity and heterogeneity are associated with semen characteristics. Methods: Five Awassi rams aged 3-5 years old and weighing 45-60 kg were subjected to ultrasonographic scanning of the testes twice monthly for one year (from January 2018 to December 2018), together with semen collection and evaluation of ejaculate volume, sperm motility, sperm concentration, sperm morphology and viability. The ejaculate volume was determined in a graduated collection tube (scale of 0.1 mL). Mass and individual sperm motility was expressed in percentage of motile spermatozoa under optical microscope equipped with a warm stage. Sperm concentration was determined by using a Neubauer chamber. Semen smears stained with eosin-nigrosin were used to determine the percentage of live spermatozoa and sperm cell morphology by using a light microscope. Results: The mean testicular pixel intensity was the lowest in winter and increased gradually from breeding season to non- breeding season, reaching its maximum value in summer (P

Transmission dynamics and the maintenance of mammarenaviruses in nature are poorly understood. Using metagenomic next-generation sequencing (mNGS) and RT-PCR, we investigated the presence of mammarenaviruses and co-infecting helminths in various tissues of 182 Mastomys natalensis rodents and 68 other small mammals in riverine and non-riverine habitats in Zambia. The Luna virus (LUAV) genome was the only mammarenavirus detected (7.7%; 14/182) from M. natalensis. Only one rodent from the non-riverine habitat was positive, while all six foetuses from one pregnant rodent carried LUAV. LUAV-specific mNGS reads were 24-fold higher in semen than in other tissues from males. Phylogenetically, the viruses were closely related to each other within the LUAV clade. Helminth infections were found in 11.5% (21/182) of M. natalensis. LUAV–helminth co-infections were observed in 50% (7/14) of virus-positive rodents. Juvenility (OR = 9.4; p = 0.018; 95% CI: 1.47–59.84), nematodes (OR = 15.5; p = 0.001; 95% CI: 3.11–76.70), cestodes (OR = 10.8; p = 0.025; 95% CI: 1.35–86.77), and being male (OR = 4.6; p = 0.036; 95% CI: 1.10–18.90) were associated with increased odds of LUAV RNA detection. The role of possible sexual and/or congenital transmission in the epidemiology of LUAV infections in rodents requires further study, along with the implications of possible helminth co-infection.

Background: HIV-1 infections occur following viral exposure at anogenital mucosal surfaces in the presence of semen. Semen contains immunosuppressive and pro-inflammatory factors. Semen from HIV-1-infected donors contains anti-HIV-1 antibodies. We assessed if passively infused anti-HIV-1 neutralizing antibody conferred protection from rectal SHIVSF162P3 challenge at semen exposed mucosae. Methods: We pooled seminal plasma from HIV-1-infected donors. The pool was screened by ELISA for antibodies against HIV-1SF162 gp140. The ability of seminal plasma to inhibit macaque NK cells from responding to direct and antibody-dependent stimulation was assessed. The ability of seminal plasma to inhibit macaque granulocytes from mediating oxidative burst was also assessed. To demonstrate viral infectivity in the presence of seminal plasma, macaques (n = 4) were rectally challenged with SHIVSF162P3 following exposure to 2.5 mL of seminal plasma. To evaluate if anti-HIV-1 neutralizing antibody confers protection against rectal SHIV challenge at semen exposed mucosae, eight macaques were intravenously infused with PGT121, either wild type (n = 4) or the Fc receptor binding deficient LALA variant (n = 4), and rectally challenged with SHIVSF162P3 following exposure to 2.5 mL of seminal plasma. Findings: Anti-HIV-1SF162 gp140 antibodies were detected in seminal plasma. Seminal plasma inhibited direct and antibody-dependent NK cell activation and granulocyte oxidative burst in vitro. Rectal SHIVSF162P3 challenge of control macaques following seminal plasma exposure resulted in infection of all animals. All macaques infused with wild type or LALA PGT121 and challenged with SHIVSF162P3 following seminal plasma exposure were protected. Interpretation: PGT121 conferred protection against rectal SHIVSF162P3 challenge at semen exposed mucosae. Future research should investigate if semen alters protection conferred by antibodies more dependent on non-neutralizing functions.

Despite advances in the field of male reproductive health, idiopathic male infertility, in which a man has altered semen characteristics without an identifiable cause and there is no female factor infertility, remains a challenging condition to diagnose and manage. Increasing evidence suggests that oxidative stress (OS) plays an independent role in the etiology of male infertility, with 30% to 80% of infertile men having elevated seminal reactive oxygen species levels. OS can negatively affect fertility via a number of pathways, including interference with capacitation and possible damage to sperm membrane and DNA, which may impair the sperm’s potential to fertilize an egg and develop into a healthy embryo. Adequate evaluation of male reproductive potential should therefore include an assessment of sperm OS. We propose the term Male Oxidative Stress Infertility, or MOSI, as a novel descriptor for infertile men with abnormal semen characteristics and OS, including many patients who were previously classified as having idiopathic male infertility. Oxidation-reduction potential (ORP) can be a useful clinical biomarker for the classification of MOSI, as it takes into account the levels of both oxidants and reductants (antioxidants). Current treatment protocols for OS, including the use of antioxidants, are not evidence-based and have the potential for complications and increased healthcare-related expenditures. Utilizing an easy, reproducible, and cost-effective test to measure ORP may provide a more targeted, reliable approach for administering antioxidant therapy while minimizing the risk of antioxidant overdose. With the increasing awareness and understanding of MOSI as a distinct male infertility diagnosis, future research endeavors can facilitate the development of evidence-based treatments that target its underlying cause.

Fitoterapide geniş kullanım alanı bulan keten tohumu Türkiye’de yaygın olarak yetişmektedir. Keten tohumlarında major kompenent besin lifleri ve müsilajdır. Ayrıca sağlığın korunması için gerekli olan omega-3 -6 yağ asitleri, linoleik asit ve alfa-linolenik asit esansiyel yağ asitleri içerir. Bu derlemede keten tohumu özellikleri ve kullanımı ele alınmaktadır.

Leukocytospermia is an ill-defined and poorly understood condition affecting up to 30% of male factor infertility. Current guidelines on leukocytospermia vary significantly, although it has been linked to increased rates of infertility, uncertainty about its clinical significance, diagnosis, and treatment remains. The guidelines are conflicting with sparse data scattered across different specialties and continents. This study aims to compare and contrast available international guidelines and recommendations. In addition to these guidelines, we sought to consolidate the findings of trials over the last several de-cades. English language articles on human observational studies, retrospective, prospective, clinical trials and randomized control trials were searched for using the following terms: “leukocytospermia, pyospermia, and male infertility.” Articles about treatment and management of leukocytospermia that were published between January 2010 and April 2018 were in-cluded, as well as four articles referenced in best practice and guideline statements from urological and andrological associa-tions. Disagreements on this topic are highlighted as some guidelines describe no correlation between leukocytospermia and infertility while others show that treatment leads to improvement of sperm quality by many measures including improved pregnancy rate. Various treatments have been suggested including antibiotics, anti-inflammatory medications, and frequent ejaculation. There is a need for definitive characterization of Leukocytospermia as an infectious or inflammatory marker and a re-evaluation of the leukocyte concentration threshold. Additional studies investigating rates of conception as a measure of outcome are needed, to provide greater level of evidence and generalizability of leukocytopsermia management.

Background and purpose: Ureaplasma urealyticum is one of the most common causes of Non-Gonococcal Urethritis (NGU). Asymptomatic clinical infection caused by this bacterium can cause malnutrition of the sexual attachment glands and its presence in semen contributes to lower fertility. The aim of this study was to identify Ureaplasma urealyticum in semen of infertile men using PCR method as an accurate diagnostic method. Materials and methods: The PCR test was optimized by standard strain to detect Ureaplasma urealyticum and then was studied in terms of specificity and limit of detection (LOD). Semen samples were collected from 100 infertile men and each sample was divided into two parts: the first part was tested by semen analysis and the second part was tested by PCR method. DNA was extracted using phenol-chloroform method and the PCR test was done for detection of Ureaplasma urealyticum. Results: Among the semen samples, 16 cases (16%) were found to be positive for Ureaplasma urealyticum. According to the spermogram test, the leukocyte level was also more than normal level in these samples (0-1 Mil/ml). Conclusion: Screening of infertile couples for Ureaplasma urealyticum infection in those without clinical symptoms, thereby performing timely antibiotic therapy play key roles in treatment of infertility. Hence, PCR method is introduced as a valuable and reliable technique to identify Ureaplasma urealyticum.

The global scenario reveals that the recent trend of deterioration of male fertility parameters parallels the growing prevalence of obesity. Over the last few decades, substantial research evidence has surfaced that aid understanding of the mechanisms by which body energy homeostasis is associated with reproductive functions. In this regard, leptin, an adipocyte-derived hormone, finds utmost relevance for its versatile physiological functions especially in metabolism as well as in the regulation of reproductive functions. Since leptin receptors are found to be highly expressed in several structures, both centrally and peripherally, it has been hypothesized that leptin may affect reproductive functions either via the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis or may also directly act upon gonadal tissues. Its roles, particularly during puberty and reproduction, are well documented. However, the exact mechanisms of leptin actions upon the gonadotropin-releasing hormone neurons to induce physiological changes of puberty and reproduction need further research. Leptin is proven as an essential hormone required for normal reproductive functions, but when leptin levels exceed the physiological limit, it may adversely affect the testicular processes. Leptin can serve as a potential link between obesity and male infertility, as it has been shown that poor male reproductive parameters such as low sperm count, testicular oxidative stress, high rate of morphological abnormalities in sperm, positively correlate with increased levels of leptin in obese men. Therefore, the present review article aims to provide a better understanding of the updated views on the functions of leptin and mechanisms of leptin actions on male reproduction.

Deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZEN) are described as detrimental factors to sow and boar fertility. In comparison, literature reports on the impact of modified forms of DON and ZEN, such as de-epoxy-DON (DOM-1) and hydrolyzed ZEN (HZEN), on swine reproduction are scarce. The aim of our study was to compare the effects of DON, DOM-1, ZEN and HZEN on boar semen in vitro. To this end, pooled boar semen ejaculates from two adult boars were treated with either 50.6 μM DON, 62.8 μM ZEN or equimolar concentrations of DOM-1 and HZEN, respectively (dilution volume of v/v 0.7% DMSO in all cases). Effects on semen motility, morphology, viability, hypo-osmotic swelling test reaction and DNA integrity were investigated hourly up to four hours of incubation. DON negatively affected particular parameters evaluated with a computer-assisted sperm analysis system (CASA), such as immotile spermatozoa and progressive motile spermatozoa, whereas those effects were absent in the case of DOM-1 treatment. In contrast to HZEN, ZEN affected almost all CASA parameters. Furthermore, only ZEN decreased the proportion of viable spermatozoa and increased the proportion of spermatozoa with abnormalities. In conclusion, DON and ZEN negatively affected boar semen in vitro, whereas equimolar concentrations of DOM-1 and HZEN did not induce harmful effects.

La pandemia de la COVID-19 ha causado un impacto aún desconocido en la salud reproductiva masculina. Por ello, el objetivo de esta revisión fue recolectar evidencia para descubrir si el agente causante de la COVID-19 puede encontrarse en el semen. La búsqueda se realizó en las bases de datos PubMed, BVS y Google Scholar, e incluyó los artículos que mostraban los resultados del análisis de semen realizado para encontrar el virus SARS-CoV-2 en hombres diagnosticados con COVID-19. Once estudios fueron seleccionados para esta revisión que aportaron 296 muestras. De ellas, solo el 2,70 % fueron positivas. Además, se encontraron resultados mixtos respecto a la morfología de los espermatozoides, y también pacientes con azoospermia u oligospermia. Este último hallazgo podría ser consecuencia del elevado número de receptores de la enzima convertidora de angiotensina 2 (ECA 2) que existen en los testículos, lo que hace a estos órganos un blanco del virus SARS-CoV-2. Se concluye que debido al limitado número de estudios y muestras aún no es posible responder la pregunta de estudio planteada.