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In the early nineteenth century, physiology became an increasingly popular and powerful science in the United States. Religious controversy over the nature of human vitality animated much of this interest. On one side of these debates stood Protestant apologists who wedded an immaterialist vitalism to their belief in an immaterial, immortal soul - and therefore to their dreams of a Christian republic. On the other side, religious skeptics argued for a materialist vitalism that excluded anything immaterial from human life, aspiring thereby to eliminate religious interference in the progress of science and society. Both sides hoped that by claiming physiology for their vision of human nature they might direct the future of religion in the US. Ultimately, they failed to realize these ambitions, but their contest posed a dilemma late nineteenth-century physiologists felt compelled to solve: how should they comprehend the relationship between life, body, and soul? Eager to undertake laboratory work and leave metaphysical questions behind, these researchers solved the problem by restricting their work to the body while leaving spiritual matters to preachers. In attempting to escape the vitalism and soul questions, late nineteenth-century Americans thus created a division of labor that shaped the history of medicine and religion for the following century., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

This paper examines the creation and development of an international social network between physiologists in Denmark and the United States in the period 1907-1939. At the center of the network was the Danish physiologist and 1920 Nobel Laureate August Krogh and his Zoophysiological Laboratory at the University of Copenhagen. In total, sixteen Americans were visiting researchers at the Zoophysiological Laboratory until 1939, and more than half of them were at some point in their career affiliated with Harvard University. For many of them, their visit would be the start of a long-term connection with Krogh and the broader network. This paper shows how the American visitors, Krogh, and the Zoophysiological Laboratory benefitted from being part of this network of top researchers in physiology and medicine. The visits themselves provided the Zoophysiological Laboratory with intellectual stimulus and more manpower for its research, while the American visitors received training and developed research ideas. Beyond the visits, the network gave the members, especially the central figures such as August Krogh, access to advice, job offers, funding and travel opportunities., (© The Author(s) 2023. Published by Oxford University Press. All rights reserved. For permissions, please email: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

This article details a 'puzzling' teaching and learning method to engage undergraduate nursing (BSN) and exercise sciences (BSES) students in physiology or medicine Nobel Prize-winning discoveries, while reviewing course material through the "Puzzling Physiology and Nobel Laureates" (PPNL) game. The qualitative evaluations of 117 undergraduate BSN and BSES students revealed that 95% and 96%, respectively, agreed the game provided an opportunity to utilize critical thinking and problem-solving skillsets. Moreover, 96% of the 117 anonymous student respondents voted on increasing the number of PPNL game sessions per semester, and 94% agreeing the gamified learning strategy should be offered in subsequent classes as well. Interestingly, nearly 90% agreed that the learning experience was 'fun', and that it increased awareness of physiology and/or medicine discoveries. The style of the "Puzzling Physiology and Nobel Laureates" game lends to its reproducibility in a wide array of physiology courses for both majors and nonmajors.

Competing Interests: The authors declare no competing interest.

Context: Sudden cardiac arrest is the leading cause of sport-related deaths in young athletes. Athletic training students must understand cardiovascular anatomy and physiology in addition to pathophysiology to appropriately care for patients with cardiovascular conditions. Objective: Describe a teaching technique to actively engage students in lecture about cardiovascular anatomy, physiology, pathophysiology, and electrocardiograms. Background: Drawing for retention is an educational technique used in medical education to help students recognize patterns, reinforce knowledge, and retain information. Using drawing for abstract concepts that cannot always be visualized or applied enhances comprehension. Description: An educational technique using drawing for retention to teach cardiovascular concepts, conditions, and basic electrocardiogram interpretation was implemented in an emergency care in athletic training course. The instructor drew and lectured on concepts of anatomy, physiology, pathophysiology, electrocardiograms, and interventions while the students drew and took notes on the concepts. Educational Advantage(s): Students describe this activity as a beneficial way to learn and apply cardiovascular anatomy and physiology to cardiovascular conditions and treatment. Conclusions: Faculty may consider implementing drawing for retention as an active learning technique to engage students with complex or abstract topics.

The Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine, in the year 2020, has been awarded to three scientists, Harvey Alter, Michael Houghton, and Charles Rice, for jointly discovering the hepatitis C virus (HCV). This remarkable achievement is a huge breakthrough in the fight against hepatitis C. Most importantly, their pioneering works have successfully saved millions of lives by acting as the foundation for sensitive blood tests and effective antivirals. Inspired by the 2020 Nobel Prize winners, this review article honors their great efforts and discusses several unmet needs in the path toward HCV elimination. In Taiwan, we adopted a micro-elimination approach plus patient-centric outreach program to tackle the obstacles that stand in the way of HCV elimination. With its significant results, HCV elimination could be achieved in the near future., (© 2020 The Authors. The Kaohsiung Journal of Medical Sciences published by John Wiley & Sons Australia on behalf of Kaohsiung Medical University.)

L. Z. Morokhovetz, professor of the Moscow University, made an important contribution to national medicine of late XIX-early XX centuries. However, during almost a century very little attention was paid to his personality. The article, on the basis of documents, describes activities of this eminent physiologist, historian of medicine, scientific research organizer and public figure. At that, a number of significant gaps and inaccuracies in his scientific biography were eliminated.

Much effort continues to be devoted to the development of devices to analyse breath ammonia with the anticipation that breath ammonia analyses will be useful in clinical practice. In this perspective we refer to the analytical techniques that have been used to measure breath ammonia, focusing on selected ion flow tube mass spectrometry, SIFT-MS, of which we have special knowledge and understanding. From the collected data obtained using the different techniques, we exam the origins of mouth- and nose-exhaled ammonia and conclude that mouth-exhaled ammonia is always elevated above a concentration that would be equilibrated with blood ammonia and is largely produced by the action of enzymes on salivary urea. Support to this conclusion is given by the reasonable correlation between blood urea concentration and mouth-exhaled ammonia concentration. Further, it is discussed that nose-exhaled ammonia largely originates at the alveolar interface and so its concentration more closely relates to the expected alveolar blood ammonia concentration. Ingestion of proteins results in increased blood/saliva urea and ultimately mouth-exhaled ammonia as does the generation of urease by H. pylori infection. It is also concluded that when mouth-exhaled ammonia is elevated then it may be due to either abnormally high blood urea, a high pH of the saliva/mouth/airways mucosa, poor oral hygiene or a combinations of these.

Previous statistical studies found that polymathic networks of vocational and avocational interest predominate among Nobel Prize winners, discriminating them from less-successful peers. Here we confirm qualitatively and phenomenologically that this multidisciplinarity is a considered creative strategy. Peers often recognize Nobel laureates as "Renaissance" intellects; Nobel Prize committees often award their prizes for transdisciplinarity and integration; Nobel laureates often describe their polymathy as conscious choice to optimize creative potential. That so many Nobel laureates should develop diverse interests and harness them to creative ends is, probably, the result of a confluence of factors. Laureates experience, on average, enhanced access to education; they train differently and more broadly than their peers; they retrain and extend themselves as serious amateurs; and they meld vocational and avocational sets of skills and knowledge into integrated networks of transdisciplinary enterprise. In effect, this combinatorial approach to learning and doing enables them to perceive unusual problems at the intersections of disciplines, to transfer ideas and techniques from one field to another, and/or to synthesize knowledge across domains. Specializing in breadth can be a path to innovation comparable to, and (at least in terms of Nobel Prizes) arguably better than, specialization alone.

Undergraduate programs related to allied health are often pursued by students to prepare for entrance into professional programs, but many students also ask about what types of employment options they may have upon completion of the bachelor's degree. This experiential learning course in cardiovascular and sleep technology was designed to provide opportunities for students to gain hands-on clinical skills that could help them to enter professional programs or to find employment in an allied health field such as cardiopulmonary rehabilitation, cardiovascular technology, or sleep technology. The prerequisites for this course were the completion of two semesters of anatomy and physiology. This course was based on experiential learning and was structured into three modules: clinical exercise physiology, autonomic physiology, and sleep physiology. As part of the course students completed a 4-page scientific report for one designated topic within each of the modules. The two exams in the course were essay based. The design of this course required students to review key topics from anatomy and physiology, to comprehend peer-reviewed manuscripts, to gain hands-on experiences with sophisticated physiological equipment, to work as individuals and in groups, and to become better oral and written communicators. The sleep physiology module included an introduction to electroencephalography (EEG) and a student-led nap study, which may be an effective way to introduce students to sleep medicine. We are hopeful that the summary of this course will be useful to physiology educators as they work to provide the most meaningful experiences to their undergraduates in the health sciences.

Chinese scientist Tu You-you won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2015, due to her outstanding contribution to the discovery of antimalarial drug artemisinin. The discovery of artemisinin is a great breakthrough using modern pharmaceutical technology to excavate ancient Chinese traditional medicine resources, based on government's coordination mechanisms. This article analyzes the research and development status of the current global antiparasitic products, as well as China's needs and strengths in related areas. The authors propose that China should take the advantage of government financing and research capacity to strengthen the research and development of antiparasitic products, so as to contribute more to improving global health equity.

Systems medicine is the application of systems biology concepts, methods, and tools to medical research and practice. It aims to integrate data and knowledge from different disciplines into biomedical models and simulations for the understanding, prevention, cure, and management of complex diseases. Complex diseases arise from the interactions among disease-influencing factors across multiple levels of biological organization from the environment to molecules. To tackle the enormous challenges posed by complex diseases, we need a modeling and simulation framework capable of capturing and integrating information originating from multiple spatiotemporal and organizational scales. Multiscale modeling and simulation in systems medicine is an emerging methodology and discipline that has already demonstrated its potential in becoming this framework. The aim of this chapter is to present some of the main concepts, requirements, and challenges of multiscale modeling and simulation in systems medicine.

Nobel Laureates in Physiology or Medicine who received the Prize between 1969 and 2011 are compared to a matched group of scientists to examine productivity, impact, coauthorship and international collaboration patterns embedded within research networks. After matching for research domain, h-index, and year of first of publication, we compare bibliometric statistics and network measures. We find that the Laureates produce fewer papers but with higher average citations. The Laureates also produce more sole-authored papers both before and after winning the Prize. The Laureates have a lower number of coauthors across their entire careers than the matched group, but are equally collaborative on average. Further, we find no differences in international collaboration patterns. The Laureates coauthor network reveals significant differences from the non-Laureate network. Laureates are more likely to build bridges across a network when measuring by average degree, density, modularity, and communities. Both the Laureate and non-Laureate networks have "small world" properties, but the Laureates appear to exploit "structural holes" by reaching across the network in a brokerage style that may add social capital to the network. The dynamic may be making the network itself highly attractive and selective. These findings suggest new insights into the role "star scientists" in social networks and the production of scientific discoveries.

The use of neurophysiological measurements to advance the design, development, use, acceptance, influence and adaptivity of information systems is receiving increasing attention. Within the field of education, neurophysiological measurements have commonly been used to capture a learner's psychological constructs such as cognitive load, attention and emotion, which play an important role in student learning. This paper systematically examines the literature on the use of neurophysiological measurements in higher education. In particular, using a well-established Systematic Literature Review (SLR) method, we identified 83 papers reporting empirical evidence about the outcome of employing neurophysiological measurements within educational technologies in higher education. The findings of the SLR are divided into three main themes discussing the employed measurements, experimental settings and constructs and outcomes. Our findings identify that (1) electroencephalography and facial expression recognition are the dominantly employed types of measurement, (2) the majority of the experiments used a pre-experimental design, (3) attention and emotion are the two foremost cognitive and non-cognitive constructs under investigation, while less emphasis is paid to meta-cognitive constructs and (4) the reported results mostly focus on monitoring learners' states, which are not always the same as the intended purpose, such as developing an adaptive system. On a broader term, the review of the literature provides evidence of the effective use of neurophysiological measurements by educational technologies to enhance learning; however, a number of challenges and concerns related to the accuracy and validity of the captured construct, the intrusiveness of the employed instruments as well as ethical and privacy considerations have surfaced, that need to be addressed before such technologies can be employed and adopted at scale.

Relating mathematics learned in the classroom to real situations increases student motivation and enhances learning. In this paper, we provide an example of a classroom application of calculus to physiology in two courses: "Differential Equations" and "Calculus I for Biology and Medicine." We designed and implemented a project that uses calculus to model the volume, flow, and pressure of air inside the lungs of a patient receiving positive pressure ventilation. After comparing mathematical models to a mechanically ventilated high-fidelity breathing simulator, students reported heightened interest in, and a greater appreciation for, the relevance of the calculus in both courses.

This paper represents a philosophical appraisal of Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) from the point of view of the philosophy of science. As it is generally the case with other versions of Traditional Medicine, rather than a coherent research program Traditional Chinese Medicine constitutes an array of various techniques and practices coupled with a diversity of very different speculative doctrines regarding the physiological structure of certain body parts as well as the purported etiology of disease and malfunction. This chapter starts off by describing some of the theoretical assumptions on which TCM relies with the aim of casting light on whether they, alongside the clinical techniques TCM encompasses, can significantly be considered as a scientific theory comparable with that of conventional medicine. In so doing the chapter examines a plurality of demarcation criteria between science and non-science coming from various existing philosophical frameworks old and new. While, as will be shown, a wealth of research based on RCTs (randomized control trials) points out that TCM's degree of effectiveness is low, that is not the point this paper intends to make. Instead of such an empirical criticism, the author sustains a comparably stronger epistemic contention, namely: even if the clinical results of TCM fared better than they actually do, that observation alone would not be a good reason to consider this branch of traditional medicine as a scientifically respectable endeavor.

This paper presents the evaluation of a design research project that combines artistic practice and academic theory to demonstrate how problem-based learning (PBL) can bridge the gap between those fields. "Researching Empathy Through Staged Performance" was a master's thesis project in the field of interaction design and consisted of an artistic performance titled "My Body, Your Room." The live performance functioned as a site for conducting scientific research into corporeal empathy. The project investigates how embodied methodologies that combine dance performance and interactive technologies can strengthen empathic relationships between the audience, performer and the environment. "My Body, Your Room" was developed at the Design School Kolding (Denmark), and utilised cross-disciplinary theories, concepts and methods from interaction design, performance studies and neuroscience. The working methodology drew on artistic approaches and scientific research methods such as quantitative and qualitative analysis, including video documentation, ethnography, surveys and interviews.

This literature review explores prior research involving physiological-based mobile educational systems. Mobile computing is advancing, and implementations of ubiquitous systems for educational purposes are increasing. Another growing field is physiological computing, where the user's states are retrieved and applied as control inputs in applications. The integration of physiological signals such as electroencephalography (EEG), heart rate (ECG/EKG), and eye-tracking (EOG) to mobile learning (m-learning) applications can enhance the learning experiences to provide content tailored to the student's and educator's preferences. This article centers around a selection of core papers that represent the most relevant contributions to the research that falls at the intersection of m-learning and physiological computing. Specifically, this article presents an analysis and discussion of state-of-the-art mobile educational systems that leverage physiological technology.

Background: Pupillometry has been studied as a physiological marker for quantifying cognitive load since the early 1960s. It has been established that small changes in pupillary size can provide an index of the cognitive load of an individual as he/she performs a mental task. The utility of pupillometry as a measure of expertise is less well established, although recent research in the fields of education, medicine and psychology indicates that differences in pupillary size during domain-specific tasks allows differentiation between experts and novices in appropriately designed experiments. Purpose: The goal of this review is to explore the existing body of evidence for the use of pupillometry as a measure of expertise and to identify its strengths and constraints within the context of expertise research in the medical sciences. Results: Pupillometry is a robust metric that allows researchers to better understand cognitive load in medical practitioners with varying levels of expertise. In medical expertise research, it has been used to study surgeons, anesthetists and emergency physicians. Its strengths include its ability to provide quantitative and objective outputs, to be measured unobtrusively with new technology and to be precisely computed as cognitive load changes over the course of completion of a task. Constraints associated with this methodology include its potential inaccuracy with changes in ambient light and pupillary accommodation as well as the need for relatively expensive equipment. Conclusion: With recent technological advances, pupillometry has become a simple and robust method for quantifying physiological changes attributable to cognitive load and is increasingly being utilized in medical education. It can be used as a reliable marker of cognitive load and has been shown to differentiate levels of expertise in medical practitioners.

Plagiarism is not an issue observed only among students; rather, it also occurs in the publications of researchers in academic journals. The current study explored how Nobel laureates, with the highest possible academic status in the world, engage in text borrowing. A list of 91 laureates in physics, chemistry, physiology and medicine, and economics from 2006 to 2015 were identified and their publications were collected and analysed using Turnitin software. The findings of the current study revealed that Nobel laureates' journal publications outperform those of their counterparts in terms of text borrowing, even though there are still incidences of extensive text borrowing and the lack of appropriate citations observed in their publications. Most of the text borrowing in question consists of self-plagiarism and methods section text, in agreement of earlier research findings. In addition, papers by authors whose affiliated institutions are located in English-speaking countries exhibit fewer incidences of text borrowing than papers by authors whose affiliated institutions are located in non-English-speaking countries, whereas the number of authors does not play a significant role in text borrowing.

Most physiological scientists have restricted understanding of probability as relative frequency in a large collection (for example, of atoms). Most appropriate for the relatively circumscribed problems of the physical sciences, this understanding of probability as a physical property has conveyed the widespread impression that the "proper" statistical "method" can eliminate uncertainty by determining the "correct" frequency or frequency distribution. However, many relatively recent developments in the theory of probability and decision making deny such exalted statistical ability. Proponents of Bayes's subjectivist theory, for example, assert that probability is "degree of belief," a more tentative idea than relative frequency or physical probability, even though degree of belief assessment may utilize frequency information. In the subjectivist view, probability and statistics are means of expressing a consistent opinion (a probability) to handle uncertainty but never means to eliminate it. In the physiological sciences the contrast between the two views is critical, because problems dealt with are generally more complex than those of physics, requiring judgments and decisions. We illustrate this in testing the efficacy of penicillin by showing how the physical probability method of "hypothesis testing" may contribute to the erroneous idea that science consists of "verified truths" or "conclusive evidence" and how this impression is avoided in subjectivist probability analysis.

The ability to distinguish between mere equality in resource distributions and fairness based on a broader range of contextual factors is of paramount importance in social decision making and is a critical component of morality. Children's developmental shift from viewing inequality as a dichotomous moral issue toward a more nuanced understanding of partial inequality has been well documented across middle childhood and is attributed to a host of potential theoretical underpinnings, including developing number concept, increased regard for one's social status, and a maturing concept of fairness. The current study examined the electrophysiological markers associated with children's (N = 83; 4 to 8 years of age) third-party evaluations of equal, slightly unequal, and extremely unequal resource distributions, documenting the timing of fairness considerations. It further explored the link between individual differences in these neural computations and children's allocation behaviors and judgments. Event-related potentials demonstrated an early differentiation between equality and any type of inequality reflected by a medial frontal negativity. Later (after 500 ms), extreme inequality was discriminated from equality and slight inequality. Differences in later waveforms predicted sharing and third-party contextual resource distributions, accounting for wealth and merit. These results illuminate the multifaceted nature of developing neural computations of fairness and illustrate the value of a multiple levels of analysis approach in contributing theoretical clarity toward the developmental science of moral cognition and behavior.

Clinical physiology is a branch of physiology particularly dealing with functional disturbances in disease (pathophysiology) and the integrated function of the human body in disease against the background of normal function in healthy subjects, suitable physiological methods for the study of patients--particularly for diagnostic purposes--as well as for research, and the education of medical students and laboratory assistants in these fields. Departments of clinical physiology in university hospitals form a bridge between basic physiology and many clinical specialties. Independent departments of clinical physiology developed early in Sweden due to the work of Professor Torgny Sjöstrand at the Karolinska Hospital in Stockholm, and have been models of research, teaching and hospital organization which have been followed in several other countries. The International Union of Physiological Sciences (IUPS) has recognized clinical physiology as a separate branch of physiology by approving a Commission of Clinical Physiology which has contributed to the programme of this and, we hope, future congresses, as well as promote the development of clinical physiology internationally.

A variety of medical simulators have been developed over recent years for students of all medical professions. These simulators serve to teach basic science concepts, advanced clinical skills, as well as empathy and student confidence. This study aimed to understand the students' perception of the integration of high-fidelity simulation exercises into the teaching of human physiology. Research groups were made up of both osteopathic and podiatric medical students. Data were obtained using a Likert-scale survey. Results indicated that students believed the simulation experiences were beneficial to further understanding of physiological concepts, as well as seeing these concepts in a clinical setting. Variations were noted between podiatric and osteopathic medical students' perception on how the experiences helped them develop clinical and personal confidence, and if the experience helped illustrate correlations between laboratory values and accompanying physiology. Results illustrated no differences in perception between the sexes. Although all students agreed that the experience helped with the understanding of physiology, podiatric medical students did not necessarily find value in the simulation for their development as future clinicians. We predict that differences in perception are largely based on the different curriculums of the students questioned. The present study indicated that incorporation of simulation experiences in the first year of medical school enhanced learning basic science physiology concepts and promoted the development of self-confidence as future clinicians. Incorporating simulation into the didactic coursework should be promoted in other medical schools' curricula.