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Separation anxiety is a common behavior disorder, but our understanding of its etiology and underlying neurochemical mechanisms remains limited. The purpose of this study was to compare serum brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) levels in dogs with and without separation anxiety. BDNF, one of several neurotrophins, is prevalent in the limbic region and prefrontal cortex, which are key areas related to the regulation of mood, emotion, and cognition. Although an enriched environment increases BDNF levels, stress and glucocorticoid exposure decrease the expression of BDNF in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. As separation anxiety is associated with chronic stress, we hypothesized that BDNF levels in dogs affected by separation anxiety would be lower than BDNF levels in nonaffected dogs. A total of forty-eight dogs were classified by a board-certified behaviorist as affected (n = 15) or nonaffected (n = 33) by separation anxiety based on review of video clips of the dogs when left alone and owner reports of the dogs’ behavior. Groups did not differ in regard to age, body weight, body condition score, or sex, and most dogs were mixed breed. Fasted serum samples were analyzed with a canine BDNF ELISA. Nine (60%) dogs in the affected group and 12 (36%) dogs in the nonaffected group had a BDNF level

Physical rehabilitation (PR) is recommended following spinal cord injury to help improve and maintain muscle elasticity, joint mobility, and nerve health. It can also be used to relieve pain and improve cardiopulmonary fitness in an immobile patient. There is evidence, in human medicine, that PR plays a critical role in mental health and the psychological state of the patient. As part of the assessment phase, human physical therapists often identify psychosocial symptoms and barriers at the start of PR that ultimately may affect improvement in human patients suffering from injury and the loss of mobility. Patient psychological state plays an integral role in healing and outcome during treatment and rehabilitation. Specific interventions set to address these symptoms can better outcome. Arguably, one of the most emotionally traumatizing injuries suffered by a canine patient can be immobility secondary to spinal cord injury. Poorly understood is the role the canine cognitive state plays in the success of rehabilitation following spinal cord injury. Should breed, age, sex, physical fitness, personality, previous experiences and history or home lifestyle, affect the PR assessment of these patients? Do these factors affect eventual outcome following PR? The purpose of this manuscript is to explore psychosocial barriers encountered during injury rehabilitation in humans and determine if the similar barriers need to be considered when assessing a canine patient for spinal cord injury rehabilitation.

Since salivary chromogranin A (CgA) is one of the known sympathetic adrenomedullar system (SAM) stress markers in humans and pigs, this study aimed to investigate whether salivary CgA in dogs reflects SAM activation. Our hypothesis was that salivary CgA would increase when central noradrenaline was pharmacologically induced. A selective noradrenaline transporter blocker, atomoxetine, was orally administered without causing any aversive responses in nine laboratory dogs to see if it would increase salivary CgA. Three treatment groups (i.e., atomoxetine, placebo, and pre-administration of a selective alpha-2 adrenoreceptor agonist (dexmedetomidine) followed by atomoxetine) were prepared with a randomized crossover design. Saliva sample collection, heart rate measurement and behavior observation were performed at Time 0 (baseline) and at 30, 60, 90 and 150 min after each treatment administration. The results demonstrated that salivary CgA significantly increased at 90 min in the atomoxetine treatment (p &lt, 0.05), whereas it was not observed in the other two treatments. The present study showed that salivary CgA was increased by atomoxetine-induced SAM activation. However, this increase was blocked if dexmedetomidine was pre-administered. Overall, the results indicate that salivary CgA is a potential candidate for SAM-mediated stress markers in dogs. Further study to determine the dynamics of salivary CgA will be helpful in its practical use.

Along with the growing awareness of psychological stress in companion animals, several treatments have become available to address fear- and anxiety-related behaviors in dogs. To detect vulnerable individuals and apply effective treatments, reliable evaluations that can quantify individual stress responses are in high demand. To develop measurable variables that have clinical applications, more investigations are needed to increase our knowledge. When stress responses are activated by the sympathetic-adrenal-medullary (SAM) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axes, the immune system is also activated. Although the peripheral cortisol level is commonly used as a stress biomarker, it primarily reflects the HPA axis response and does not sufficiently reflect the complexity of the stress response. Thus, this review primarily focuses on the available salivary biomarkers that mainly reflect the acute stress response through the activity of the SAM axis and the immune system in dogs. We hope that this review will promote the validation of these biomarkers in dogs and aid in the development of future studies to evaluate stress responses in dogs.

The use of a standardized physiological measure in veterinary behavior evaluations would improve both accuracy of the diagnosis and monitoring of the treatment response. Infrared thermography (IRT) is a noninvasive, remote assessment tool used primarily in research to evaluate changes in surface body temperature resulting from underlying physiological processes. IRT has not been examined widely in a veterinary behavior clinic setting, and its clinical validity requires testing. In this pilot study, patient data were reviewed retrospectively from a veterinary teaching hospital's behavior clinic population to determine if surface eye temperature as measured by IRT differed in dogs with fear-based aggression compared to dogs with various other behavioral diagnoses. Forty-six dogs were subdivided into groups with fear-based aggression toward unfamiliar people (n = 32) or no fear-based aggression but with other behavioral diagnoses (n = 14) to compare surface eye temperature and behavioral responses in the clinic setting. The potentially provocative stimulus was the presence of unfamiliar people in the consultation room (clinician and student). The primary outcomes of interest were change in surface eye temperature and behavioral responses between 2 time points 45 minutes apart during the 60-minute consultation. It was hypothesized that in contrast to dogs with fear-based aggression, IRT-measured mean surface eye temperature in dogs without fear-based aggression would decrease between the 2 time points. Instead, surface eye temperature increased in both groups of dogs without significant difference between the groups (P = 0.16). Dog's posture and proximity to the owner in the consultation room at the start of the evaluation also were not significantly different between the 2 groups. However, 27% of the fear-based aggressive dogs compared with 0% of the dogs with other diagnoses exhibited aggressive reactions to unfamiliar people who stood up to leave the consultation room at the end of the visit. Study design factors likely contributed to the negative findings. First, the study population was derived from clinic behavior patients, and dogs in both groups had multiple behavioral diagnoses that may have impacted their response to stress in the clinic setting. In addition, all dogs were tethered during the consultation visit, and this may have triggered underlying anxiety in both groups of dogs. A future study that addresses these study design factors would be needed to determine whether IRT-measured surface eye temperature in a clinical setting is a helpful measure.

Introduction: Psychiatric service dogs are increasingly being sought out by military veterans as a complementary intervention for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). After receiving a service dog, many veterans continue training their service dog at home. Our objective was to explore the associations between training methods, PTSD severity, service dog behavior, and the veteran-service dog bond in a population of military veterans with PTSD. Methods: Post-9/11 military veterans with PTSD who had received a psychiatric service dog were recruited from a national service dog provider. A total of 111 veterans (M = 40.1 ± 8.3 years, 80% male) participated in an online survey regarding frequency of training methods, PTSD symptom severity, service dog behavior, and the human-animal bond. Service dogs were predominately Labrador Retriever purebreds or mixes of various breeds (66% male) and mostly obtained from shelters or rescues (58%). Training methods were divided into five categories: positive reinforcement (e.g., physical praise), negative punishment (e.g., ignoring the dog), positive punishment (e.g., verbal correction), dominance (e.g., alpha roll), and bond-based (e.g., co-sleeping). Data were analyzed using general linear models. Results: Veterans self-reported using all five categories of training methods at least once a month. More frequent use of positive punishment was associated with less closeness with their service dog (p = 0.02), more fear (p = 0.003), less eye contact (p < 0.0001), and less trainability (p = 0.04). More frequent use of positive reinforcement was associated with higher closeness to their service dog (p = 0.002) and perceived increased attachment behavior (p = 0.002) and playfulness (p = 0.002). More frequent use of bond-based methods was associated with higher closeness to their service dog (p = 0.02). PTSD severity was not significantly associated with reported dog behavior, temperament, or veteran-service dog closeness. Conclusion: Military veterans with PTSD service dogs reported using many training methods that were associated with different outcomes. In general, the reported use of positive reinforcement or bond-based training methods were associated with reporting more positive outcomes while the reported use of positive punishment was associated with reporting more negative outcomes. Educating service dog organizations and recipients about the impacts of training methods could be beneficial for service dog efficacy and welfare.

Separation anxiety has long been recognized as an anxiety-related disorder in dogs that is only observed in the owner's real absence or perceived absence. Over the past four decades, this condition has been the most commonly discussed disorder in published studies, but etiology, treatment, and prevention remain elusive. A review of the literature indicates a lack of comparative studies. Little progress has been made to build a new understanding beyond the clinical symptomology. Future research employing more rigorous designs and systematically building upon a clearly defined research questions is needed to advance our knowledge of this most common behavioral problem in dogs.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the ability of two concurrent randomized controlled interventions based on social cognitive theory to increase walking. A second purpose was to compare the efficacy of the intervention between two distinct groups: dog owners and non-dog owners. Adult dog owners ( n = 40) and non-dog owners ( n = 65) were randomized into control or intervention groups. Intervention groups received bi-weekly emails for first 4 weeks and then weekly email for the next 8 weeks targeting self-efficacy, social support, goal setting, and benefits/barriers to walking. Dog owner messages focused on dog walking while non-dog owners received general walking messages. Control groups received a 1-time email reviewing current physical activity guidelines. At 6 months, both intervention groups reported greater increases in walking and maintained these increases at 12 months. The greatest increases were seen in the dog owner intervention group. In conclusion, dog owners accumulated more walking, which may be attributed to the dog–owner relationship.

Background. The aims of this study were to describe the development of and investigate the feasibility and acceptability of a pilot randomized controlled physical activity intervention based on social cognitive theory that used a dog walking strategy. Method. Participants ( n = 49) were randomized into an intervention or control group. Overall, participants were middle-aged ( M = 45.7 ± 13.4 years), Caucasian, and on average considered obese with a mean body mass index of 30.0 ± 5.5. Descriptive statistics were used to summarize participant characteristics and analyze the feasibility and acceptability data. Regression models were used to (a) examine significant differences between intervention and control groups across time (baseline to post-intervention) and (b) examine if changes in theoretical constructs from baseline to post-intervention resulted in changes in dog walking in both the intervention and control group. Results. Participants agreed that the intervention e-mails were easy to read and understand ( M = 4.3 ± 0.7). Participants reported that the frequency of e-mails was adequate ( M = 4.3 ± 0.8), but there was lower agreement that the e-mails encouraged an increase in dog walking ( M = 3.6 ± 1.2). Post-intervention, the control group increased weekly dog walking to 19.4 ± 4.9 minutes, whereas the intervention group increased it to 79.3 ± 11.2 minutes. Conclusions. Preliminary results suggest that this pilot intervention is an acceptable and feasible strategy for promoting dog walking among dog owners.

Objective To determine the effects of brimonidine tartrate ophthalmic solution on sedation, heart rate (HR), respiratory frequency (fR), rectal temperature (RT) and noninvasive mean arterial pressure (MAP) in healthy cats. Study design Randomized, blinded crossover study, with 1 week washout between treatments. Animals Six healthy purpose-bred cats. Methods Brimonidine tartrate ophthalmic solution 0.1% (one or two drops; 58.6 ± 3.3 μg per drop) or a control solution (artificial tear solution) was administered to six healthy cats. Behavioural observations and measurements of HR, fR, RT and MAP were recorded before and at 30, 60, 90, 120, 180, 240, 300 and 360 minutes after topical administration. Behavioural scores were analysed using Friedman’s test for repeated measures to evaluate the time effect in each treatment and treatment effect at each time point. Physiological variables (HR, fR, RT and MAP) were analysed using two-way analysis of variance for repeated measures to evaluate the time and treatment effects. The level of significance was set at p Results Dose-dependent behavioural and physiological responses were noted. A dose of two drops of brimonidine resulted in sedation in the cats and decreased HR and MAP. Significant sedative effects occurred between 30 and 120 minutes and for physiological responses up to 360 minutes. The most frequent adverse reaction was vomiting, occurring within 40 minutes in all six cats administered two drops and five of the six cats administered one drop of brimonidine. Conclusions and clinical relevance The results demonstrated that ocular administration of brimonidine 0.1% ophthalmic solution induced sedation in cats and some cardiovascular effects usually associated with α2-adrenoceptor agonists. Further studies should be performed to determine clinical applications for this agent in cats.

Background: To facilitate physical activity (PA) adoption and maintenance, promotion of innovative population-level strategies that focus on incorporating moderate-intensity lifestyle PAs are needed. Objective: The purpose of this randomized controlled trial was to evaluate the Dogs, Physical Activity, and Walking intervention, a 3-month, social cognitive theory (SCT), e-mail-based PA intervention. Methods: In a longitudinal, repeated-measures design, 49 dog owners were randomly assigned to a control (n = 25) or intervention group (n = 24). The intervention group received e-mail messages (twice weekly for 4 weeks and weekly for 8 weeks) designed to influence SCT constructs of self-efficacy, self-regulation, outcome expectations and expectancies, and social support. At baseline and every 3 months through 1 year, participants completed self-reported questionnaires of individual, interpersonal, and PA variables. Linear mixed models were used to assess for significant differences in weekly minutes of dog walking and theoretical constructs between groups (intervention and control) across time. To test self-efficacy as a mediator of social support for dog walking, tests for mediation were conducted using the bootstrapping technique. Results: With the exception of Month 9, participants in the intervention group accumulated significantly more weekly minutes of dog walking than the control group. On average, the intervention group accumulated 58.4 more minutes (SD = 18.1) of weekly dog walking than the control group (p < .05). Self-efficacy partially mediated the effect of social support variables on dog walking. Discussion: Results indicate that a simple SCT-based e-mail intervention is effective in increasing and maintaining an increase in dog walking among dog owners at 12-month follow-up. In light of these findings, it may be advantageous to design dog walking interventions that focus on increasing self-efficacy for dog walking by fostering social support.

Behavioral medications may be used to augment behavioral treatments for fear-based problems in dogs, particularly when the signs are severe or the feared stimulus is impossible to control. In some cases, a single pharmacologic treatment may not completely manage fear and thus multiple medications may be required. The objective of this study was to evaluate the use of an alpha-2 agonist clonidine for PRN (pro re nata) treatment of fear-based behavior problems in dogs that are hyporesponsive to other pharmacologic strategies. A total of 22 dogs of various breeds, age, and both genders determined to have fear-based behavior problems were divided into 2 groups, A and B, on the basis of their primary behavioral diagnosis. In group A, the primary diagnoses were separation anxiety, noise phobia, storm phobia, or a combination of these conditions. In group B, the primary diagnoses were fear aggression or a combination of fear and fear-based territorial aggression. Dogs in both groups were treated with PRN dose schedule of clonidine as well as behavior modification. In group A, the clinical outcome was compared with previous pharmacologic treatments according to owner assessments. Similarly, in group B, the clinical outcome was compared with previous treatments. In both groups, the most effective PRN dose of clonidine and any adverse effects were noted. According to global assessment by owners, 7 of the 10 owners (70%) in group A reported that clonidine was more effective as compared with the previously given medications. Of the 12 owners (92%) in group B, 11 reported that clonidine reduced the intensity of aggressive response of the dogs during the drug's active phase. Only one adverse effect was reported and that involved a noise phobic dog displaying increased sound sensitivity. The results suggest that PRN use of clonidine may be useful in addition to being well tolerated for the treatment of fear-based behavior problems in dogs. Further studies are needed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of clonidine in dogs.

Monoamine transporters have roles to regulate the monoamine concentrations in synaptic clefts in the central nervous system and are the targets of antidepressants and psychostimulants. They include transporters for norepinephrine, dopamine and serotonin, which are encoded by the SLC6A2, SLC6A3, and SLC6A4 genes, respectivily. We sequenced the full lengths of the coding regions of these genes for dogs and identified four single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in SLC6A2 and four in SLC6A3. One SLC6A3 SNP was non-synonymous and caused an amino acid substitution from threonine to serine. The genotype frequencies of these polymorphisms differed significantly among five breeds with different behavioral traits, suggesting that novel SLC6A2 and SLC6A3 SNPs would provide additional useful information for behavioral genetic studies in dogs.

Attempts have been made in many studies to measure canine behavioral traits, but the results cannot be compared, because no standardized methods exist. The purpose of this study was to standardize the fear-eliciting stimuli (i.e., a conditioned stimulus) to assess a particular behavioral trait, namely fearfulness. We applied a Pavlovian aversive conditioning protocol and measured autonomic parameters, in addition to making behavioral observations. Fear-related autonomic responses, such as increased heart rate and increased body temperature, rose consistently in response to a conditioned stimulus, but behavioral changes did not consistently correlate with the physiological responses. Our findings show that dogs clearly respond to conditioned stimuli and that their autonomic reactions assessed in objective indices can be more reliable and consistent measures than some behavioral measures. Based on these results, we propose that associative learning between fear-inducing conditioned and unconditioned stimuli can be assessed accurately in dogs.

A Bernese mountain dog was diagnosed with complex partial seizures that were supported by electroencephalographic findings. Clinical signs of the problem included "star gazing," fly snapping, licking, vacuous chewing, and ongoing anxiety. Treatment with Huperzine A, a compound isolated from Chinese club moss with NMDA receptor blocking activity, anticholinesterase activity, and anticonvulsant properties, produced useful suppression of the abnormal behavior for more than months. A relapse occurred when the dog was treated with tramadol for joint pain and the improvement that had been made was not recaptured with Huperzine A. At this stage, phenobarbital therapy was instituted and the dog improved greatly. The role of Huperzine A in controlling seizures is discussed.

Excitatory amino acid transporters (EAATs) are important for terminating glutamatergic neurotransmission and protect central nervous system (CNS) neurons from glutamatergic excitotoxicity. We selected these genes as targets that may relate to canine behavioral traits. After screening four EAAT genes (glutamate transporter-1; GLT-1, excitatory amino acid transporter 4; EAAT4, excitatory amino acid carrier; EAAC1, glutamate/aspartate transporter; GLAST) for single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), we identified two silent SNPs (C129T and T471C) in the GLT-1 gene. We genotyped 193 dogs of 5 breeds and found significant variation among breeds in these two SNPs in GLT-1. The C129T polymorphism was not observed in Malteses and Miniature Schnauzers. These results suggest that polymorphisms in the GLT-1 gene may be useful markers for examining how the genetic background relates to the behavioral traits of dogs.

Thirty-six cases of feline urine marking problem were collected through the cooperation of veterinary practitioners in the Kanto, Chubu, and Kansai areas in Japan, for an assessment of the clinical effect of treatment with a synthetic analogue of a feline cheek gland pheromone-like product. The mean frequency of urine marking was 14.2 times/week (median, 10; range, 1-77) at pre-treatment week (preW), and decreased significantly from the first week of treatment, dropping to 4.2 times/week (median, 2; range, 0-44) at the fourth week of treatment. This effect continued until the fourth week after cessation of treatment. These 36 cases were divided into 3 groups based on the effectiveness of treatment as demonstrated in the fourth week of treatment; 37% was categorized as the totally eliminated group (urine marking was not seen), 40% as the reduced group (the frequency of urine marking was equal to or less than 50% that of the preW), and 23% as the unchanged group (the frequency of urine marking was more than 50% that of the preW). Effectiveness of treatment in these groups was 38%, 24%, and 38% at the fourth week after the cessation of treatment, respectively. The decreasing rate of urine marking was compared between cats with and without intercat aggression, and it was revealed that the frequency of marking was sustained at high level in cats with intercat aggression. These results suggest that this pheromone treatment is as effective in Japan as has been reported in other countries for solving feline urine marking problems.

In order to characterize the three major behavior problems, aggression toward owners, aggression toward strangers and separation anxiety, backgrounds of dogs and general outcomes of the behavioral treatments were analyzed retrospectively. There were 169 cases of aggression toward owners, 84 cases of aggression toward strangers and 78 cases of separation anxiety which did not overlap each other during the 5 years from 1993 to 1997 at Cornell University Animal Behavior Clinic. Based on the case records, including discharge instructions, follow-up information, and pre-presentation questionnaires, several variables were compared among these three groups. The sexual status of these groups was not statistically different, although dogs with aggression toward owners had the highest proportion of males and there were more males in all behavior groups than in the hospital population. Also, breed types were different among three groups with a significantly higher proportion of mixed breed dogs among dogs with separation anxiety and aggression to strangers as compared to dogs with aggression to owners and to the hospital population. A higher percentage of dogs in the separation anxiety group tended to live in apartments and to be disciplined only verbally by the owner than in the other two groups. Age differences were apparent among the three groups in relation to when the dogs were obtained, and the separation anxiety group was different from at least one of the other groups in the age when first obtained, the age the owners first noticed the problem, and the age of behavioral examination. Regarding the general outcome of the behavioral treatment, there were no significant differences among the behavioral groups with regards to the proportion of dogs reported improved. These results provide new characterizations of these three major behavior problems.