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Introduction: Motor imagery (MI) is a very popular and well-accepted technique in different disciplines. Originating from sport and psychology, MI is now also used in the field of medicine and education. Several studies confirmed the benefits of MI to facilitate motor learning and skill acquisition. The findings indicated that individual's MI ability might influence the effectiveness of MI interventions. Over the last two centuries, researchers have developed several assessments to evaluate MI's abstract construct. However, no systematic reviews (SR) exist for MI ability evaluation methods and their measurement properties., Methods and Analysis: The SR will evaluate available MI ability assessments and their psychometric properties in four relevant disciplines: sports, psychology, medicine and education. This involves performing searches in SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, Cochrane Library, Scopus, Web of Science and ERIC. Working independently, two reviewers will screen articles for selection. Then all raw information will be compiled in an overview table-including the articles' characteristics (eg, a study's setting or the population demographics) and the MI ability assessment (psychometric properties). To evaluate the articles' methodological quality, we will use the COSMIN checklist. Then we will evaluate all the included assessments' quality and perform a best-evidence synthesis. Results of this review will be reported following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines., Ethics and Dissemination: The SR is based on published data, and ethical approval is not required. This review will provide information on assessment performance and equipment, as well as its main focus and usefulness. Furthermore, we will present the methodological quality of all the included articles and assess the included instruments' quality. Ultimately, this will act as a valuable resource, providing an overview of MI ability assessments for individual clinical settings, treatment aims, and various populations. The SR's final report will be published in a peer-reviewed journal and presented at relevant conferences., Prospero Registration Number: CRD42017077004., Competing Interests: Competing interests: None declared., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2018. Re-use permitted under CC BY-NC. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

The aim of the study is to examine methodological aspects of developing motor skills in children of different ages during football club activities. The article thoroughly explores training approaches for various age groups: preschool age (4-6 years), primary school age (7-10 years), middle school age (11-14 years), and adolescence (15-18 years). It is determined that each age group requires an individualized approach, taking into account anatomical and physiological characteristics and sensitive periods of children's development. The development of motor skills is achieved through various game exercises, comprehensive physical training, tactical preparation, and innovative technologies. The article also emphasizes the importance of psychological support and individualized training programs for older age groups.

Abstract Background In patients without a family history, Duchenne muscular dystrophy (DMD) is typically diagnosed at around 4–5 years of age. It is important to diagnose DMD during infancy or toddler stage in order to have timely access to treatment, opportunities for reproductive options, prevention of potential fatal reactions to inhaled anesthetics, awareness of a child’s abilities needed for good parenting, and opportunities for enrolment in clinical trials. Method We aimed to develop a short risk assessment tool based on developmental milestones that may contribute to the early detection of boys with DMD in primary care. As part of the case-control 4D-DMD study (Detection by Developmental Delay in Dutch boys with DMD), data on developmental milestones, symptoms and therapies for 76 boys with DMD and 12,414 boys from a control group were extracted from the health records of youth health care services and questionnaires. Multiple imputation, diagnostic validity and pooled backward logistic regression analyses with DMD (yes/no) as the dependent variable and attainment of 26 milestones until 36 months of age (yes/no) as the independent variable were performed. Descriptive statistics on symptoms and therapies were provided. Results A tool with seven milestones assessed at specific ages between 12 and 36 months resulted in a sensitivity of 79% (95CI:67–88%), a specificity of 95.8% (95%CI:95.3–96.2), and a positive predictive value of 1:268 boys. Boys with DMD often had symptoms (e.g. 43% had calf muscle pseudohypertrophy) and were referred to therapy (e.g. 59% for physical therapy) before diagnosis. Discussion This tool followed by the examination of other DMD-related symptoms could be used by youth health care professionals during day-to-day health assessments in the general population to flag children who require further action. Conclusions The majority of boys (79%) with DMD can be identified between 12 and 36 months of age with this tool. It increases the initial a priori risk of DMD from 1 in 5,000 to approximately 1 in 268 boys. We expect that other neuromuscular disorders and disabilities can also be found with this tool.

Background The acquisition of motor skills is a key element in many sports. A motor learning principle, which is frequently used to support skill acquisition is the application of different attentional foci. The effectiveness of different attentional foci on performance and the learning of motor skills has been investigated in various sports using randomised controlled trials. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of different attentional foci (such as external (EFA) and internal attentional foci (IFA), but also holistic and switching foci) on the performance and learning of a sport-specific motor task in healthy individuals. Methods This study was a systematic review with network meta-analysis. We followed the Prisma reporting guideline and the Cochrane handbook for systematic reviews. Cinahl, Embase, Medline and Cochrane Central were searched for eligible studies. Network meta-analyses were performed for the post-acquisition, retention and transfer test endpoints. Results Twelve studies were included in the review. At post-acquisition an EFA was the most effective intervention compared to the control intervention (SMD: 0.9855; 95% CI [0.4–1.57]; p: 0.001). At the retention and transfer test endpoints, a holistic focus of attention had the highest effectiveness compared to an IFA (SMD 0.75; 95% CI [−0.1 to 1.6]; p: 0.09) and (SMD 1.16; 95% CI [0.47–1.86]; p: 0.001). Discussion For all three endpoints, we analysed a greater effectiveness of an EFA and holistic focus compared to an IFA. Several promising different attentional focus interventions were identified. The largest effects were analysed for a holistic focus. However, only one study used this intervention and therefore there remains uncertainty about the effectiveness. With regard to the inconsistency observed, the analysis at post-acquisition should be interpreted with caution. Modified versions of the EFA were the imagined and the dynamic EFA. Both were only explored in single studies and should therefore be investigated in further follow-up studies that directly compare them.

Introduction: The aim of the study was to assess the physical fitness of young players from the club "MKS Ogniwo Sopot" after a year of systematic training and to evaluate the components of physical fitness supporting the motor performance of young rugby players. Overall balance, responsiveness, coordination, running speed and agility, and endurance were assessed to align with selected EUROFIT tests. Results: Thirteen players took part in the study. Physical fitness was tested by using five EUROFIT tests. Statistically significant differences were found in the results of the following tests: Plate Tapping test, Standing Long Jump test, 10 x 5 m Shuttle test, Beep test. The only test with a statistically insignificant difference was the Flamingo Balance test. Conclusion: Analyzing the presented research results, it can be concluded that the athletes obtained higher results than in the previous year, indicating the development of physical fitness components that support the motor achievements their. Physical fitness depends on these components, so we can conclude that an annual period of systematic training has had a positive effect on the physical fitness of young athletes.

Background: Childhood is an important transitional period for the development of healthy physical activity (PA) behaviours, so it is important to understand its impact on a healthy lifestyle. Aim: This study aimed to determine the influences of sex, socioeconomic status (SES) and body composition (BC) on the relationships between PA, motor skills, motor- and health-related physical fitness in 5–8-year-olds. Setting: Participants were a subsample consisting of 299 children (150 boys, 149 girls, mean age 6.83 ± 0.96 years) from the Exercise, Arterial Modulation and Nutrition in Youth South Africa study (ExAMIN Youth SA). Methods: Anthropometric measures, health-related physical fitness (HRPF), motor-related physical fitness (MRPF), objectively measured PA and demographic information were determined. Results: Only 66% achieved the recommended 60 min of daily moderate vigorous physical activity (MVPA) with 19% classified as having unhealthy body composition (11% overweight, 8% obese). Fat-free mass and SES revealed small-to-moderate influences on the relationship between MVPA, standing broad jump (SBJ; r = 0.32), predicted VO2max (r = 0.28) and beep levels (r = 0.22). For MRPF, the quality of running (r = 0.12) and balancing were associated with MVPA. Adjusting for sex, BC and SES in the relationship between PA with HRPF and MRPF, reductions in most correlations were observed. Conclusion: Moderate vigorous physical activity levels were positively associated with HRPF, MRPF and some motor skills in 5–8-year-olds. Socioeconomic status (lower parental income, employment and education negatively influenced the association between MVPA and fitness [beeps, SBJ, O2max]). Contribution: This study provides knowledge with regard to the use of accelerometer for baseline data for PA, MRPF, HRPF as well as motor skills in South African children.

Down syndrome (DS) is one of the most common chromosomal disorders. In addition to this variety of dysmorphic features. DS is also associated with a wide range of diseases and related comorbidities affecting different organs and systems. These comorbidities, together with societal and environmental influences, have a negative impact on physical activity in people with DS. Low levels of physical activity and energy expenditure have been identified as crucial players in worsening the acquisition of motor skills and executive functions. Executive functions are critical for the many skills (creativity, flexibility, self-control, and discipline) impacting our quality of life and make it possible to control impulses, mentally play with ideas, and stay focused. We proposed a broad overview of the available literature regarding motor skills and executive functions in pediatric patients with DS to understand the specific challenges for tailoring physical activity interventions. Motor skill interventions are effective in improving motor competence and performance on cognitive, emotional, and physical aspects in children with DS. Interventions based on executive functions in DS subjects are effective to contrast the cognitive decline and improve the everyday use of executive functions in youth and adults. Targeted interventions are mandatory for maximizing the benefits of physical activity, minimizing potential risks, and ultimately improving the overall health outcomes and quality of life for individuals with DS.

Objectives: This study aims to investigate the impact of impaired upper limb motor function on trunk control and mobility in chronic post-stroke survivors so that the upper limb function should be enhanced as a core component of rehabilitation. Methods: This analytical cross-sectional study was conducted from March 2021 to August 2021 at the Rehabilitation Center for the Physically Disabled in Peshawar, Pakistan. A total of 166 chronic stroke patients in the age range of 35 to 70 years and greater than 6 months post-stroke were included. To assess the impaired upper extremity, the Fugl-Meyer assessment upper extremity scale was used, and the trunk control and mobility were checked through functional reach test and timed up and go test, respectively. Results: Among 166 stroke survivors having upper extremity impairment, 109(65.7%) participants’ upper extremity was severely affected. Mobility levels measured through the timed up and go test were categorized and scored; accordingly, the participants showed a low risk of 22(13.3%), moderate 32(19.3%), high 72(43.4%), and very high risk of falls of 40(24%). Among 166 patients, 147(88.6%) had no trunk control which resulted in 8 times greater fall risk in 65(39.2%) participants. Thus, upper limb impairment is significantly associated with impaired trunk control and mobility (P=0.001). Discussion: This study found about one-third of stroke survivors have a risk of falling, two-thirds have upper extremity impairment, and two-thirds have no trunk control. This study showed a significant reduction in mobility level, balance, and posture balance in stroke survivors having upper extremity impairment. These findings suggest that stroke survivors with upper extremity impairment may use therapeutic intervention to minimize falls and enhance postural balance and trunk control.

Objective To evaluate treadmill backward walking training (BWT) effects on walking speed, balance, mobility, and walking endurance in children with cerebral palsy (CP). Methods The study evaluated 41 children with CP (age, 6–18; Gross Motor Function Classification System levels I and II). They were randomly allocated into control and BWT groups. BWT was applied (two sessions/week, 15 min/session for 8-week) to BWT group after the neurodevelopmental-based physiotherapy program routinely followed by all participants while the control group did not receive BWT. 10-Meter Walk Test (10MWT), Pediatric Balance Scale (PBS), Timed Up and Go Test (TUG), and Two-Minute Walk Test (2MWT) were selected as outcome measures for assessing walking speed, balance, mobility and endurance respectively. Results In BWG, 2MWT distance (3.5%), PBS (3.5%) increased significantly, and TUG decreased by 5.1% (all p

IntroductionRemotely delivered treatment and research procedures were rapidly adopted in response to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, it is unclear if these measures are valid. The purpose of this study was to compare the validity of anthropometry and motor skill proficiency measurements collected in a remote-setting to in-person setting among a sample of children ages 3–4 years.MethodsChild anthropometry and motor skill performance were measured in-person by trained assessors and by parents at home with remote supervision via videoconference by trained assessors. The following measures from the National Institutes of Health Toolbox were collected: anthropometry (height and weight), manual dexterity/manipulation (9-hole pegboard), motor coordination and agility (supine timed up and go), lower body strength (standing long jump), and postural stability (one-leg standing balance). Differences in expert and parent-based measurements were assessed using Bland-Altman plots, paired samples t-tests, and Pearson correlations.ResultsA total of n = 14 children completed the assessments. No significant differences were observed between measurement locations for weight and motor skills (p > .05). Remote measurement of height (M = 101.1 cm, SD = 5.40) was significantly greater than in-person measurements (M = 98.2 cm, SD = 5.16); p

Objectives: To assess the impact of cognitive therapy with the rehacom visual-motor module on the hand function in hemiplegic cerebral palsy children. Method: The randomised case-control study was conducted at Kafrelsheikh University, Egypt, from September 2021 to February 2022, and comprised children aged 6-8 years with spastic hemiplegic cerebral palsy. They were randomised into control group A and intervention group B. Subjects in group A received designed physical therapy and hand function training, while those in group B additionally received visual-motor coordination training with the help of rehacom system. The groups were evaluated for both visual-motor coordination and fine motor skills at baseline and after 6-month training. SPSS version 26 was used to analyse the raw data of the current study. Results: Of the 40 subjects, 20(50%) were in each of the two groups. There were 13(65%) boys and 7(35%) girls with mean age 66±4.01 months in group A, and 9(45%) boys and 11(55%) girls with mean age 67±4.06 months in group B (p>0.05). Both groups showed improvement related to grasping, visual-motor integration and fine motor quotient post-intervention, but improvement in group B was significantly higher on each count(p

Purpose Assessing the relationship between ultrasound imaging of respiratory muscles during tidal breathing and running tests (endurance and speed) in adolescent football players. Methods Ultrasound parameters of the diaphragm and intercostal muscles (shear modulus, thickness, excursion, and velocity), speed (30-m distance), and endurance parameters (multi-stage 20-m shuttle run test) were measured in 22 male adolescent football players. The relation between ultrasound and running tests were analysed by Spearman’s correlation. Results Diaphragm shear modulus at the end of tidal inspiration was moderately negatively (R = − 0.49; p = 0.2) correlated with the speed score at 10 m. The diaphragm and intercostal muscle shear modulus ratio was moderately to strongly negatively correlated with the speed score at 10 m and 30 m (about R = − 0.48; p = 0.03). Diaphragm excursion was positively correlated with the speed score at 5 m (R = 0.46; p = 0.04) and 10 m (R = 0.52; p = 0.02). Diaphragm velocity was moderately positively correlated with the speed score at 5 m (R = 0.42; p = 0.06) and 30 m (R = 0.42; p = 0.07). Ultrasound parameters were not significantly related to all endurance parameters (R ≤ 0.36; p ≥ 0.11). Conclusions Ultrasound parameters of the respiratory muscles are related to speed score in adolescent football players. The current state of knowledge does not allow us to clearly define how important the respiratory muscles’ ultrasound parameters can be in predicting some performance parameters in adolescent athletes.

The present study examines sex differences regarding children's self-perceptions and motor competence (locomotor and object control subtests), parents' perceptions about their boys’ and girls’ competence, and the associations among these variables. Parents and their children (N = 77; M = 8.70, SD = 2.13) participated in the study. The children’s motor competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development – Second Edition (TGMD-2). The children’s self-perceptions were assessed using the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance and the Self-Perception Profile for Children, depending on the child’s age. The parental perception of their children's motor competence was assessed using an adapted version of the children’s perceptions of motor competence. Boys and girls were similar regarding the locomotor subtest; boys showed significantly higher scores for the object control subtest than girls. Parents’ perceptions of children’s motor competence were significantly related to the children´s motor competence and were the stronger predictor in the locomotor model and the second predictor in the object control subtest model; sex was the stronger predictor for the object control subtest. Our findings address new information regarding children's motor and parents' motor competence.

The primary purpose of this paper is to determine and prove the impact of loads with different intensities on the treadmill on the heart frequency, as well as to prove the relationship and impact of some anthropometric and motor parameters on the physiological one in the manifest space. In harmony with the purpose of the research, three basic hypotheses have been presented that cover the anthropological research fields. In this paper, 19-year-old students of the Faculty of Sports Sciences are included. To achieve the purpose of the paper, a sample of 80 students who were regular students during the year 2022/2023 was included. Four anthropometric variables, three motor tests (running tests) and four physiological tests (pulse at rest and during loads) are included in this paper. For the three groups of the system of variables, the basic statistical and distribution parameters for each variable, as well as the measures of asymmetry and normal distribution, were calculated. Then the correlations between the variables in the manifest space, as well as the correlations between the system of variables. In order to determine the relationship between predictor variables (anthropometric and motor characteristics) and criterion variables (results of functional skills), regression analysis was applied in the manifest space. The processing of the results shows that the obtained values do not deviate from the normal distribution, which completes their metric characteristics. The impact of morphological and motor factors on heart rate results has not been proven.

Motor imagery, an intricate cognitive procedure encompassing the mental simulation of motor actions, has surfaced as a potent strategy within the neuro-rehabilitation domain. It presents a non-invasive, economically viable method for facilitating individuals with disabilities in enhancing their motor functionality and regaining self-sufficiency. This manuscript delivers an exhaustive analysis of the significance of motor imagery in augmenting functional rehabilitation for individuals afflicted with physical impairments. It investigates the fundamental mechanisms governing motor imagery, its applications across diverse disability conditions, and the prospective advantages it renders. Moreover, this document addresses the prevailing obstacles and prospective trajectories in this sector, accentuating the necessity for continued investigation and the invention of cutting-edge technologies that optimize the potentiality of motor imagery in aiding disabled persons.

Background: The purpose of current study was examining the effect of quiet eye training on performance and kinematics of throwing skill in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) at 6 years of age. Methods: In this semi-experimental study with pretest-posttest design and a 14-day follow-up period, 30 girls of 6 years old with DCD were assigned into two groups of quiet eye training and control. In pre-test phase, participants performed 10 trials of bean bag throwing. Acquisition phase was done in 18 sessions and in each session, 10 trials were done. After finishing the last training session, in post-test phase, and in 2 weeks detraining in retention phase, participants performed 10 trials of bean bag throwing. In each phase, vision information with eye tracker system, kinematic data with high-speed camera, and accuracy were recorded by researcher. Data were analyzed with repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Findings: Quiet eye training had a significant effect on accuracy of throwing, quiet eye period, and throwing kinematics (P < 0.05). Conclusion: The results of the current study emphasize the importance of quiet eye training in improving throwing skill and kinematics of children with DCD, and instructors are advised to use this type of exercise to improve these skills.

Purpose: Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is common among intellectual disability children that can worsen motor problems, especially motor skills. The purpose of the study was to examine the effect of combining core stability exercises with coordination exercises on motor proficiency of intellectual disability children with DCD. Methods: The population was boys with intellectual disability and DCD studying in Golestan School of Tabriz randomly that were divided into two groups of 15 subjects in the experimental group and 15 in the control group. Motor skills were evaluated using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Short Form in the pre- and post-test. The experimental group performed three sessions (every week) of 60 minutes of combined core stability with coordination training for eight weeks. SPSS v. 21, dependent t-test, and analysis of covariance at the significance level of P

Abstract Objective To evaluate the laparoscopic skills of medical students and identify personal characteristics in terms of greater easiness in performing laparoscopic surgical procedures. Methods This study included medical students in the 6th semester of a Medical School in Brazil who answered 10 questions concerning their habits and characteristics. A laparoscopic platform and an abdominal synthetic model were used to assess surgical skills comprising the three following surgical steps: to pass the needle through the trocar and to place it in the laparoscopic needle holder, to perform a laparoscopic simple stitch in synthetic liver parenchyma and, to perform a laparoscopic surgical knot. The duration of the activity was limited to four minutes and the procedure was monitored by a laparoscopic surgeon. Results The study included 50 students. Of these, 18% completed the three surgical stages. Steps 1 and 2 were completed by 94% and 88% of students, respectively. No statistically significant variables were found when characteristics of the groups with and without success in the three stages were compared. The group that finished the activity had a faster time completing step 2 than the group that failed (mean time of 115.3 seconds against 157.8 seconds, p=0.03). Conclusion The minority of students could complete effectively all three surgical steps. No personal traits related to greater surgical skill were identified.

The prevalence of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) among children has been recently increasing. The severity of symptoms greatly varies between individuals with ASD, ranging from relatively mild to extremely severe. It is important to have a clearer understanding of the possible adverse consequences resulting from this disorder, such as delayed motor development, autonomic dysregulation, and arterial stiffness. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate differences in motor skills, heart rate variability (HRV), and arterial stiffness between children with ASD and typically developing children. In this study, the school-aged children with mild symptoms of ASD (n = 17, 11.1 ± 1.0 years old) and typically developing peers (n = 15, 11.0 ± 0.5 years old) were recruited. Motor skills, HRV, and arterial stiffness were measured in these two groups. Motor skills were evaluated by the Bruininks–Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-Second Edition. Moreover, HRV was measured through a short-term recording using the Polar heart rate monitor, and arterial stiffness was assessed by non-invasive computerized oscillometry. Compared with the typically developing group, children with ASD displayed significant deficits in some areas of motor skills, including manual coordination, strength and agility, and total motor composite. Moreover, children with ASD exhibited significantly reduced HRV, including time- and frequency-domain measures. However, the results did not demonstrate any statistically significant differences in arterial stiffness between the groups. Our findings demonstrated the presence of motor skill deficits and autonomic dysregulation in children with ASD.

Background: This study aimed at examining the effect of manipulating the length of quiet eye training on learning an inhibitory skill in children with developmental coordination disorder (DCD). Methods: A quasi-experimental method with a pre-test and a post-test design was utilized during a 14-day follow-up period. The statistical population of the study was the 6-year-old girls with DCD in the kindergarten of Isfahan University, Isfahan, Iran. Using tests for assessing children's motor skills - Movement Assessment Battery for Children, Second Edition (MABC-2) - 45 children with DCD were selected. Based on the pre-test scores (performance), participants were divided into three groups of 15: basic quiet eye training, short-term quiet eye training, and long-term quiet eye training. In the pre-test, participants received 10 attempts at bean bags. The acquisition phase was performed in 18 sessions, with 10 attempts per session. At the end of the last training session, in the post-test and in two weeks of non-training in the follow-up phase, the participants received 10 attempts at bean bags. At each stage, visual information was recorded by an eye tracking device and the accuracy of the throw was recorded by the researcher. Data were analyzed using repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA). Findings: All three exercises of basic quiet eye, short-term quiet eye, and long-term quiet eye had a significant effect on receiving skills and duration of quiet eye period (P < 0.05). Moreover, long-term quiet eye exercises had a higher effect size compared to short-term and basic quiet eye exercises. Conclusion: In general, the results of the study emphasized the importance of a longer quiet eye period in learning inhibitory skills, which confirms the pre-programming hypothesis.

Objectives: Handwriting dysfunction may harm children’s wellbeing. Therapists and elementary school teachers help to identify and improve children’s handwriting performance. The present study aimed to assess the relationship between therapists’ assessment and teachers’ perception of handwriting performance in first graders. Methods: This cross-sectional study involved (n=31) first-grade students, aged 6-8 years from an international school in Riyadh City, Saudi Arabia. Teachers evaluated the handwriting proficiency using the Handwriting Proficiency Screening Questionnaire (HPSQ), and the explored students were rated as proficient and non-proficient hand writers. Furthermore, therapists assessed students’ handwriting proficiency using the Minnesota Handwriting Assessment (MHA) (manuscript & D’Nealian styles) scores. The Mann–Whitney U test was used to assess the differences in MHA scores between proficient and non-proficient hand writers. Moreover, Spearman’s correlation coefficient was used to assess the relationship between the scores of MHA and HPSQ. Results: There was a significant difference in all component scores of MHA (except the rate) and both writing styles between the proficient and non-proficient writers (P

The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of motor competence among children and adolescents from two metropolitan cities, one in Portugal and one in Brazil, and analyzed the association between motor competence and weight status and bullying roles. A Cross-sectional and cross-cultural study was applied. The sample comprised 785 children and adolescents aged 7-14. Motor competence was assessed using The Körperkoordinationtest Für Kinder (KTK) test, while participation in bullying was assessed using a sociometric test and the students’ Body Mass Index (BMI), which was calculated from height and weight and reported as kg/m2. Portuguese students had a higher prevalence of impairment/disturbance in motor coordination. Also, obese students and bullying victims had higher odds of having a motor competence below normal values in both countries. These findings provide evidence of a link between motor competence and sex and weight status of schoolchildren and suggest that motor competence is associated with bullying roles. Keywords: motor skills; body composition; peer relationships; school

Objectives The primary purpose of this review was to clarify the effects of school-based integrated neuromuscular training (INT) on fundamental movement skills and physical fitness in children. The secondary purpose was to examine whether school-based INT intervention is superior to physical education (PE) intervention in enhancing motor skills and fitness. Methods A systematic literature search was performed in four electronic databases: PubMed, Web of Science, MEDLINE (EBSCOhost), and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. The last search was performed on December 21, 2021, and was limited to the English language, human species, and peer reviewed journals. Randomized controlled trials and cluster randomized controlled trials that examine the effects of school-based INT on motor skills and/or fitness in healthy children who were aged up to 14 years old were included. Moreover, studies included in this study should compare school-based INT-induced adaptions with those generated by PE interventions. Studies that involve athletic children and additional exercise training were excluded. The Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale was used to assess the quality of the study. Results Of 1,026 studies identified, seven original trials that meet the inclusion criteria were included in this review. Based on the PEDro scale, the PEDro score of seven studies was between six and eight points with a mean score of 5.29. Among the seven studies included in this study, four studies assessed physical fitness including muscular fitness (n = 4), speed (n = 3), endurance (n = 2), and flexibility (n = 2). Three studies examined the effects of INT on postural control and three studies explored its effects on motor skills. Concerning movement competence, significant and greater improvements in postural control and fundamental motor skills were observed following school-based INT interventions compared to PE intervention in two and three studies, respectively. Regarding physical fitness, neuromuscular training significantly increased muscular fitness, speed, endurance, flexibility in three, two, one, and one studies, respectively. However, only greater improvements in muscle fitness were observed in school-based INT group compared to PE group. The main limitations of this review were the lack of descriptions of training intensity and volume and the low methodological quality of the included studies. Conclusion This review provides evidence that school-based neuromuscular training programs are superior to PE lessons in improving postural control, fundamental motor skills and muscular strength. Therefore, INT could be incorporated into traditional physical education classes in school. Trial registration number: CRD42022297349.

The study aimed to estimate sex differences in body mass index (BMI), motor competence (MC), health-related physical fitness (HRPF), perceived motor competence (PMC), and physical activity (PA) and to identify individual predictors associated with overweight in Brazilian children. A cross-sectional study was conducted, sampling 217 Brazilian children aged between 6-10 years old. PA was measured through pedometers. MC and PMC were estimated, respectively, by the Test of Gross Motor Development (second edition) battery and the Pictographic Scale of Perceived Competence Assessment in Motor Skills, while the HRPF was estimated through abdominal, upper limb and lower strength, flexibility, and cardiorespiratory fitness tests. Height and weight were measured, and BMI was computed. Statistical analyses involved the use of the Mann Whitney U test and multiple logistic regression. Sex differences were observed for HRPF score, mean of weekend steps and total steps/week, favouring boys (p< 0.05). Multiple logistic regression analysis revealed that MC (OR= 0.97; 95%CI 0.92–0.98) and HRPF (OR= 0.78; 95%CI 0.66–0.93) were significantly associated with overweight, while any significant association were observed for PA and PMC. Results highlight that increases in MC and HRPF reduced the chances of children being overweight.

Approximately 50% of oncology patients receive radiotherapy, with the dose of radiation often being limited to mitigate normal tissue damage of proximal critical/sensitive structures. Currently, no preclinical models exist to study a putative drug's efficacy in terms of functional recovery of tissues adversely effected by radiation exposure. Such limitations inhibit the development of targeted therapeutics. To this end, we developed a model of radiation-induced soft-tissue damage with quantitative outcomes of tissue function. Mice received a single administration of radiation focused on the posterior limb while under anesthesia. A blinded observer weighed each mouse and performed motors skills assessments weekly for the duration of the study. At the end of the study, mice were euthanized, assessed for hindlimb range of motion and histological analysis was performed, evaluating tissue morphology and fibrotic scarring. Mice presented numerous significant ambulatory deficits that positively correlated with the dose of radiation administered. Irradiated mice presented with reduced range of motion and increased fibrotic scarring upon histological assessment across all dose groups as compared to controls. The current study is the first to describe a preclinical model of functional skeletal muscle deficits following focal radiation injury of a posterior limb, which will be useful for the assessment of novel drug candidates to treat radiotherapy-induced soft-tissue damage.

Physical activity plays an important role in the motor and psychological development in a pediatric population. The maturation of human motor skills is gradual over the time. It depends on several factors, including but not limited to: individual differences, health condition, quality of neuromuscular structures and stimulating factors. Research included in this review shows that different types of physical activity, including aerobic training, strength training, dance, yoga, and walking programs, improve mood and mental health. Aerobic physical activity has the greatest effect on reducing the symptoms of anxiety and stress. Habits related to the physical activity, acquired in childhood, can be maintained in adulthood, which contributes to the better health and quality of life. Extensive literature indicates that regular physical activity encourages growth and development and has multiple benefits for the mental, physical, cognitive and psychosocial health of children. Children capacities for exercise change in accordance within defined developmental periods. Young children are active at short intervals and their capacity for continuous activity increases as they grow and mature. The health benefits of sporadic exercise at a younger age are not well established, stressing the short-term benefits of physical activity for some aspects of cognitive and mental health, indicating that maximum benefit can be achieved by frequent bouts of exercise during the day.

Importance: This systematic review could serve as a comprehensive synthesis that would benefit parents, educators, therapists, policymakers, and researchers in identifying the advantages and disadvantages of screen time (ST) on key developmental outcomes of children, specifically socio-emotional functions (SEF), executive functions (EF), cognition, language, and motor skills. Objectives: To comprehensively review the current state of literature to examine the association of the effects of ST on several developmental outcomes; to analyze the methodological quality of included studies to facilitate appraisal of evidence strength. Methods: A systematic search across EBSCO, ScienceDirect, PubMed Central, and Scopus was accomplished to identify both peer-reviewed and gray literature that reported on the association between ST and varying developmental outcomes. A chronological restriction (studies published between January 2000 and March 2020) was implemented. Inclusion criteria were studies that had participants from 0 to 9 years old, measured duration of ST, explored the effects of any of the aforementioned outcomes, and were observational studies by design (i.e., cross-sectional, cohort, case-control). Meta-analysis was not done due to clinical heterogeneity. Results: The narrative synthesis included 85 studies (from 16 countries) which had cross-sectional (n = 47), cohort (n = 36), and case-control (n = 2) designs. The majority of the studies had good (n = 16) to fair (n = 59) methodological quality. ST was generally associated with poorer SEF, EF, cognitive and motor development. Less than half of language studies supported the negative effect of ST. However, its positive effects were observed in certain conditions: (1) implementation of time limit on ST use, (2) parental co-viewing, and (3) exposure to educational content. Conclusion and relevance: The findings support the reduction of ST in children and further substantiate the American Academy of Pediatrics recommendations. The results also highlight the roles of parents and caregivers as it shows that digital media could be used as a tool to improve the development of children, given that certain conditions are met. Further research could be done on the positive effects of ST given the aforementioned conditions and the appropriate dosage of ST use.

Introduction. Cross-country skiing is a sport discipline with different applications in the modern world. It is used in recreation, rehabilitation, tourism and sport as a phycical movement. Objective of the work. The aim of the study was to estimate physical fitness of children aged 10 - 11 years attending sports classes (cross-country skiing profile) with the results of the efficiency grade among students attending unsportsmanlike classes in Sports Primary School in Suprasl. Material and methods. The study involved 50 children attending the Sports School in Suprasl - class 4 students. Each student was supposed to take part in the International Physical Fitness Test. There were the following attempts: 50 metres run, long jump, sitting position from lying down during 30 seconds, the trunkbend in front and 600 metres run. The results of completed studies are presented in tables and figures below. Results. The analysis show that girls practising cross-country skiing are characterized by higher efficiency motor skill compared to their peers, as well as it is easier for them to acquire new motor skills than for boys of their class. For boys the differences that occurred between sports and unsportsmanlike classes was insignificant. Perhaps, it may change in future. Conclusions. Children attending sports classes (cross country-skiing profile) have better motor abilities and acquire new motor skills faster than pupils in unsportsmanlike classes.

Extensive research in the past decades has evidenced differences in the psychomotor ability of individuals resulting from varying levels of experience, age, gender, response precision, compatibility, performance, and ability. Many studies have called for the need to identify psychomotor ability and appropriate tests that can assess it. This review article surveys the definition, categorization, and tests of psychomotor ability as well as training based on psychomotor ability in medical sciences. We searched the literature with no time limit, using the ProQuest, PubMed, and Eric databases, as well as the Google Scholar search engine. The keywords for the search involved psychomotor, psychomotor performance, assessment, psychomotor ability, motor learning, education, training, psychomotor ability testing, and psychomotor skills. Other relevant papers found through hand searching and snowballing were also included in the review. The EndNote X8 was employed as a reference manager tool. Only abstracts of the papers whose full texts were accessible were reviewed after repetitious papers were excluded. The documents were categorized into five groups: definition of psychomotor skills and ability, psychomotor ability components, psychomotor ability tests, identification of psychomotor ability (task analysis), and training. This review article revealed that there is not a single definition for psychomotor ability and its components. However, it can be said that motor abilities are the foundation for the rapid acquisition of skills and according to the neuroplasticity process are learned through training and practice. Given psychomotor abilities vary among individuals, training courses should also provide different levels of psychomotor training for learners. The literature introduces psychomotor tests as a selection tool, a predictor of future professional behavior, and a means to evaluate progress in performance, academic guidance (ability-oriented medical specialty), and curriculum implementation tailored to the needs of learners of varying graduate disciplines. The tests should be profession-specific because each profession entails its peculiar characteristics and abilities. On the other hand, the major problem in studying and analyzing underlying psychomotor skills and abilities is that the components are being investigated by researchers from varying, and usually unrelated, scientific fields. Therefore, it is necessary to have a holistic view through close interaction between the researchers of different sciences to better understand this area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aimed at analyzing the test-retest and interrater reliabilities of the Test of In-Hand Manipulation-Modified (TIHM-M), as well as the relationship between in-hand manipulation and handwriting. Methods: We administered the TIHM-M twice, two days apart, and the Beknopte Beoordelingsmethode voor Kinder Handschriften (BHK) - Concise Assessment Method for children’s handwriting test once to 105 children (51 boys and 54 girls) aged 6.5 to 9.5 years in regular school. Speed and quality of in-hand manipulation and handwriting were recorded. We performed a Pearson correlation test for the relationship between the speeds and the qualities of the TIHM-M and the BHK. Results: Test-retest of the TIHM-M was excellent for the speed (ICC=0.84; 95% CI:0.73-0.90) and good for the quality (ICC=0.62, 95% CI:0.36-0.78). Interrater reliabilities for both speed (ICC= 0.87; 95% CI:0.78-0.92) and quality (ICC= 0.86, 95% CI:0.60-0.84) were also excellent. We found a significant relationship between the speeds of the TIHM-M and the BHK, but there was no significant relationship between the qualities of handwriting and the TIMH-M. Discussion: The TIMH-M assessed the speed and the quality of in-hand manipulations, and it had good reliability. Nevertheless, the relationship between in-hand manipulation and handwriting needs more investigation to be confirmed.

The population from which the sample is taken for this paper is defined as the population of senior culminating athletes in the game of volleyball and handball, in the Kosovo superleague. The sample for the purposes of this research will include 100 female athletes, respectively, 50 female volleyball players and 50 female habdball players.The variables that are applied in this research are anthropometric and motor variables.8 anthropometric variables and7motor variables were applied. The results obtained from the collection of information and their processing, shows that the gained differencies between female volleyball players and female handball players in the motor variables of the explosive and situational force, indicate that during the preparatory phase in the volleyball game, it was expercised in the right way in the raising of these motor skills, while it was not given enough in the importance to the expercises of the explosive force of lower extremities.

The human motoriness is the whole of behaviors, possibilities and needs movement differently manifested at every stage of life. The pre-school period is the so-called golden period of motoriness. At this stage of life, all movement skills that affect further development of the child are improved, both in the physical, mental, intelectual and social spheres. External interventions to improve and improve skills in small and large motor skills seem to be extremely important. We should hold on the occurrence of motor development disorders and the introduction of rehabilitation as soon as possible.

Introduction: The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of spontaneous play in nature on the fine motor skills and visual-motor integration of preschool children. Materials and Methods: In this semi-experimental research with pretest-posttest design, two groups were selected using convenient sampling method. Statistical sample of research consisted of 30 preschool children aged 4.5-6.5 years (15 from the Nature School and 15 from kindergarten). The fine motor skills and visual-motor integration were assessed using Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency and the Beery-Buktenica Developmental Test, respectively. Results: MANOVA test showed that outdoor space activity had positive and significant effect on all of the variables of fine motor skills (P = 0.001) and visual-motor integration (P = 0.001) of children. While indoor space activity had a significant effect on visual-motor integrity (P = 0.013) and among the variables of fine motor skill, only on visual-motor control (P = 0.048). Outdoor and indoor spaces activity caused 71% and 13% changes in visual-motor control and 88% and 20% changes in visual-motor integrity in children, respectively. Conclusion: The type of environment which children play, have significant effect on their development. The natural environment is rich from stimulants, which has a remarkable effect on children’s development. Therefore, it is suggested that children have more activity in natural environment during their childhood to improve their motor and perceptual development.

Objective To determine effects of copy number variations (CNV) on developmental aspects of children suspected of having delayed development. Methods A retrospective chart review was done for 65 children who underwent array-comparative genomic hybridization after visiting physical medicine & rehabilitation department of outpatient clinic with delayed development as chief complaints. Children were evaluated with Denver Developmental Screening Test II (DDST-II), Sequenced Language Scale for Infants (SELSI), or Preschool Receptive-Expressive Language Scale (PRES). A Mann-Whitney U test was conducted to determine statistical differences of developmental quotient (DQ), receptive language quotient (RLQ), and expressive language quotient (ELQ) between children with CNV (CNV(+) group, n=16) and children without CNV (CNV(–) group, n=37). Results Of these subjects, the average age was 35.1 months (mean age, 35.1±24.2 months). Sixteen (30.2%) patients had copy number variations. In the CNV(+) group, 14 children underwent DDST-II. In the CNV(–) group, 29 children underwent DDST-II. Among variables, gross motor scale was significantly (p=0.038) lower in the CNV(+) group compared with the CNV(–) group. In the CNV(+) group, 5 children underwent either SELSI or PRES. In the CNV(–) group, 27 children underwent above language assessment examination. Both RLQ and ELQ were similar between the two groups. Conclusion The gross motor domain in DQ was significantly lower in children with CNV compared to that in children without CNV. This result suggests that additional genetic factors contribute to this variability. Active detection of genomic imbalance could play a vital role when prominent gross motor delay is presented in children with delayed development.

The standards as to when children should acquire particular gross and fine motor skills were presented in that study. Proper motor development of children may affect all aspects of their lives. Early detection and diagnosis of abnormalities make it possible to cope with developmental disorders quickly. The functioning of children changes in the first year of their lives. Children gain indispensable experience from the surrounding world and learn to react to external stimuli. They also develop their patterns of behavior and improve perception. This work focuses on selected aspects of motor development that play a significant role in the process of physiotherapy aimed at infants in their first trimester.

Objectives: The present study examined the effect of home-based handling training of mothers on the improvement of gross motor function of children with Cerebral Palsy (CP). Methods: In this randomized control trial, 42 children with CP (5-12 years old) were randomly assigned into the intervention and control groups. Data were collected using the Gross Motor Function Classification System and Gross Motor Function Measure. Results: Gross motor function suggested significant improvement in the intervention group, in comparison with the control group (P

In theory and practice of every sport, and therefore also in the sport of Karate there are certain rules that must be respected in order to meet the desired goals. As a very important rule in the sport of karate is to start the physical exercising at the youngest age possible in order to stimulate the development of those motor skills which are specific to the sport. As for its implementation, this study has a transversal empirical character, which means that the measurements of the motor skills are done over a specific time period. The sample was defined as students of the age of 12 from the Middle School “Selami Hallaqi” Gjilan. In this research have been included 90 students, or two groups with 45 students each. The first group is consisted of students who except for the regular two hours per week of physical education classes have also exercised the sport of karate two more times a week, an hour a day. While, the second group is consisted of a student who besides the regular two times a week of physical education have also exercised football two more times, one hour per day. Measurements were made at the end of the school year. 9 motor variables were applied (Kurelić et al. 1975), running in 20 meters (MT20V), long jump from the place (MSKDM), high jump from the place (MSKVM), hand taping (MTRUK), leg walk ( MTNOG), eight with bowing(MOSPR), running sideways (mtrs) bowing ahead in the bank (MFLPRK), legs spread sideways-retaliation (MFLSP). For the processing of the result it was applied the analysis of t-test for independent samples. The basic statistical parameters of the results obtained in the two groups involved in the research show that the values obtained do not have an outlined asymmetry and incline to the lowest ones (hypo cortical). Analysis of the t-test for independent sample obtained shows that differences in all variables between groups were statistically significant. The changes obtained from the students involved in karate section show that specific exercises applied in the training of karate have helped to improve the moor tasks to a large extent, which is confirmed by a statistically significant difference between young karate sportsman and footballers (p

The purpose of this article was to demonstrate dimorphism in the motor skills of 17-19-year-old students from schools in Bydgoszcz measured using MTSF. The research was conducted among 2,832 students of both sexes (1,686 boys and 1,146 girls) from schools in Bydgoszcz. Dimorphic differences were determined using the Student’s t-Test, Mollison’s indicators and the T-score. The study results were presented in the graphical and tabular form. The following conclusions were drawn: 1. The older the boys were the better results were achieved in tests including standing long jump, hand-grip dynamometer, pull-ups, 50m sprint, 4 x 10m shuttle run and 1000m sprint, whereas in the case of girls it was hanging on a pull-up bar and 50m sprint. The remaining results were different in terms of the age of respondents. 2. Boys were reported to have better results than girls in all tests and age groups (except for flexibility at the age of 19). Statistical significance at the confidence level of 1% was reported in almost all tests. 3. The largest differences measured by means of Mollison’s ratio were observed in the hand-grip test. 4. The results of the students involved in the study expressed in points after calculation according to the T-scale revealed bigger motor skills in girls in all age groups being compared in relation to their peers and only in the group of 19-year-old boys the results proved to be better.

INTRODUCTION. In order to ensure proper functioning and functioning of the organism from an early age, the child should be encouraged to exercise positive habits of physical activity. It is important to continuously monitor the somatic and motor development of young people so that they can take timely action to improve the situation. PURPOSE. The aim of the study was to investigate the level of motor and somatic features as well as sexual dimorphism of pupils from Primary School No.10 in Toruń. MATERIALS AND METHODS. The study involved 60 students (30 boys, 30 girls) aged 10 from Primary School No.10 in Toruń. Body height and body weight were measured using somatic features, body slimness, and BMI. For the measurement of motor abilities, the International Physical Fitness Test was used. Statistical tests used the Student's t test for independent tests. Levene's test was used to determine equality of variance. For all analyzes, the maximum permissible error I of type α = 0.05; Statistically significant p

Objectives: Motor therapy plays a key role on the bilateral coordination skills and motor activities of children with Intellectual Disability (ID). The present research aimed to investigate the effectiveness of motor therapy on motor skills and bilateral coordination skills of students with ID. Methods: This was a quasi-experimental research with pre-test and post-test and control group design. The study participants were 26 male students with ID from 2 special schools in Tehran City, Iran. The samples were selected by cluster sampling method. They were randomly divided into the experimental and control groups and each group consisted of 13 students. In the experimental group, motor therapy was performed during 16 sessions, while the control group did not receive any trainings. Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency was used for measuring gross motor skills, fine motor skills and bilateral coordination skills of the students. The obtained data were analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Covariance (MANCOVA). Results: MANCOVA results indicated a significant difference between the gross motor skills, fine motor skills and bilateral coordination skills in the experimental group, following the intervention (P

Abstract Background Tracheal intubation (TI) is a key medical skill used by anesthesiologists and critical care physicians in airway management in operating rooms and critical care units. An objective assessment of dexterity in TI procedures would greatly enhance the quality of medical training. This study aims to investigate whether any biomechanical parameters obtained by 3D-motion analysis of body movements during TI procedures can objectively distinguish expert anesthesiologists from novice residents. Methods Thirteen expert anesthesiologists and thirteen residents attempted TI procedures on an airway mannequin using a Macintosh laryngoscope. Motion capturing technology was utilized to digitally record movements during TI procedures. The skill with which experts and novices measured biomechanical parameters of body motions were comparatively examined. Results The two groups showed similar outcomes (success rates and mean time needed to complete the TI procedures) as well as similar mean absolute velocity values in all 21 body parts examined. However, the experts exhibited significantly lower mean absolute acceleration values at the head and the left hand than the residents. In addition, the mean-absolute-jerk measurement revealed that the experts commanded potentially smoother motions at the head and the left hand. The Receiver Operating Characteristic (ROC) curves analysis demonstrated that mean-absolute-acceleration and -jerk measurements provide excellent measures for discriminating between experts and novices. Conclusions Biomechanical parameter measurements could be used as a means to objectively assess dexterity in TI procedures. Compared with novice residents, expert anesthesiologists possess a better ability to control their body movements during TI procedures, displaying smoother motions at the selected body parts.

Introduction: Systemic sclerosis (SSc) is a chronic autoimmune disease characterized by progressive fibrosis of the skin and internal organs that promotes high morbidity and mortality. Objective: To evaluate the functionality, disability and quality of life of patients with systemic sclerosis and to compare the clinical forms of the disease. Methods: Cross-sectional, descriptive and analytical study performed at the Rheumatology Clinic of the Hospital das Clínicas of the Federal University of Pernambuco (HC-UFPE) from August 2018 to April 2019. The non-probabilistic, convenience sample consisted of 60 patients diagnosed with systemic sclerosis (SSc), followed at the Rheumatology outpatient clinic of the Hospital das Clínicas, Federal University of Pernambuco. To evaluate the outcomes, the following instruments were used: Cochin Hand Functional Scale (CHFS) for hand function; 12-Item Short-Form Health Survey (SF-12) for quality of life; and Scleroderma Health Assessment Questionnaire (SHAQ) for functionality and disability. Results: The mean results for CHFS, SHAQ, SF-12 Physical Component Summary and SF-12 Mental Component Summary were 14.5 (6.0-29.75), 1.01±0.56, 35.04±8.09, 40.94±10.56, respectively. There were no significant differences in CHFS outcomes between patients with diffuse and limited forms of SSc, SHAQ and the mental component of SF-12. However, in the physical component of SF-12, a better score was found in patients with the diffuse form of the disease (p=0.04). Conclusion: Patients with SSc present an important impairment of hand function, quality of life and functional capacity, and those with limited cutaneous form present worse scores of the physical component in the evaluation of quality of life.

Background: Little is known on how time spent on touch-screen technology affects the hand skills development of preschool children. This study aimed to investigate the effects of touch-screen technology usage on hand skills among preschool children. Methods: Case-control design was employed to compare the hand skills of children who were engaged in touch-screen technology. A total of 128 participants aged between five and six years old who attended preschool were recruited and divided into two groups: high usage touch-screen technology (HUTSTG) and, low usage touch-screen technology (LUTSTG). Children's Hand Skills ability Questionnaire (CHSQ) and Assessment of Children's Hand Skills (ACHS) were used to evaluate the children's hand skills. Results: There were significant differences in the hand skills of preschool children between HUTSTG and LUTSTG. Results showed that preschool children in LUTSTG had better hand skills in all domains of CHSQ (p≤0.001) and ACHS (p

Background Acquisition of procedures is an important element in health professions education. Traditionally procedures are taught using a “see one - do one” approach. That is a teacher demonstrates and describes a procedure and afterwards the students practice the procedure. A more recent teaching approach for the acquisition of procedural skills was presented by Walker and Peyton. Peyton’s teaching approach is a stepwise teaching approach and consists of the following four steps: demonstration, deconstruction, comprehension and performance. The aims of this study were (i) to systematically evaluate the effectiveness of Peyton’s 4–step teaching approach on the acquisition of procedural skills in health professions education and (ii) to evaluate whether studies with fewer students per teacher showed a larger between group difference than studies with more students per teacher. Methods We searched in Medline, PsycInfo, Embase and ERIC for eligible studies. Records were screened by two independent reviewers. A random effects meta-analysis was performed to evaluate skill acquisition and time needed to perform the procedures at post-acquisition and retention tests. A meta-regression was used to explore the effect of the number of students per teacher on the estimated effect of the educational interventions. Results An effect size of 0.45 SMD (95% CI [0.15; 0.75]) at post-acquisition and 0.7 SMD (95% CI [−0.09; 1.49]) at retention testing were in favour of Peyton’s teaching approach for skill acquisition. The groups using Peyton’s teaching approach needed considerably less time to perform the procedure at post-acquisition (SMD: −0.8; 95% [CI −2.13 to 1.62]) and retention (SMD: −2.65; 95% CI [−7.77 to 2.47]) testing. The effectiveness of Peyton’s teaching approach was less clear in subgroup analyses using peer teachers. Meta-regression showed that the number of students per teacher was an important moderator variable. Conclusion Peyton’s teaching approach is an effective teaching approach for skill acquisition of procedural skills in health professions education. When peer students or student tutors are used as teachers the effectiveness of Peyton’s teaching approach is less clear. Peyton’s teaching approach is more effective when small groups with few students per teacher are used.

Introduction: This study aimed to find out the expectations of mothers of children with cerebral palsy (CP), who are engaged in rehabilitation programs, especially in physical therapy treatment. Materials and Methods: Clinical types and gross motor function levels of the children were documented. A questionnaire consisting of 6 open-ended questions was used to define the expectations and views of the mothers of CP children about the physiotherapy and rehabilitation programs for the children. A total of 100 mothers were interviewed through an observational study with six open-ended questions along with demographic data. Results: There was no significant agreement regarding the applied treatment methods and the appropriateness of the rehabilitation programs. Conclusion: The expectations of mothers of CP children are not as high as they wanted from rehabilitation according to their children’s needs.

Background Perceived school self-efficacy (SE) is an important variable in students’ activities as it affects their motivation and learning. Further, self-efficacy might represent a good predictor of performance, persistence and perseverance. Motor skills and other physical health determinants are extensively debated and linked to cognitive function in children of developmental age. However, inconclusive evidence supports a definitive relationship between perceived school SE and motor skills among schoolchildren. We conducted a cross-sectional study on 6–11-year-old schoolchildren to evaluate the extent by which perceived school SE and physical health determinants were related. Methods A SE questionnaire and motor performance battery tests were administered to primary school pupils recruited from 154 sampled schools of northwest Italy. Perceived SE at school was assessed via 12 items from the Caprara’s questionnaire. Motor performance scores were obtained from motor skill tests: 4 × 10 m shuttle run test, SRT; standing broad jump, SBJ; six-minute walking test, 6MWT. Results A total of 3,962 children (M = 2,019; F = 1943) were studied and 68% were normal weight. Overall, a 58% of the sample perceived a high SE, while, as to gender differences, a greater percentage of females perceived high levels of school SE with respect to any other level (χ2 = 38.93, p < 0.0001). Results from multinomial logistic regression analysis revealed that: (i) females perceived higher SE compared to males; (ii) children who performed better in SRT and 6MWT showed higher levels of perceived school SE; (iii) no significant effect was registered for the body weight. Alternative strategies are encouraged to enhance SE through physical education: structured interventions might enhance both complex motor skills and high-order cognitive skills, like SE, in young children.