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Purpose: The aim of this study was to map responses over 32 hours following high-load (HL) and moderate-load (ML) half-squat priming. Methods: Fifteen participants completed control, HL (87% 1RM), and ML (65% 1RM) activities in randomized, counterbalanced order. Countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), saliva testosterone, saliva cortisol, and perceptual measures were assessed before and 5 minutes, 8 hours, 24 hours, and 32 hours after each activity. Results are presented as percentage change from baseline and 95% confidence interval (CI). Cliff delta was used to determine threshold for group changes. Results: SJ height increased by 4.5% (CI = 2.2–6.8, Cliff delta = 0.20) 8 hours following HL. CMJ and SJ improved by 6.1% (CI = 2.1–7.8, Cliff delta = 0.27) and 6.5% (CI = 1.2–11.8, Cliff delta = 0.30), respectively, 32 hours after ML. No clear diurnal changes in CMJ or SJ occurred 8 hours following control; however, increases of 3.9% (CI = 2.9–9.2, Cliff delta = 0.26) and 4.5% (CI = 0.9–8.1, Cliff delta = 0.24), respectively, were observed after 32 hours. Although diurnal changes in saliva hormone concentration occurred (Cliff delta = 0.37–0.92), the influence of priming was unclear. Perceived “physical feeling” was greater 8 hours following HL (Cliff delta = 0.36) and 32 hours after ML and control (Cliff delta = 0.17–0.34). Conclusions: HL priming in the morning may result in small improvements in jump output and psychophysiological state in the afternoon. Similar improvements were observed in the afternoon the day after ML priming.

Loturco, I, Pereira, LA, Kobal, R, Fernandes, V, Reis, VP, Romano, F, Alves, M, Freitas, TT, and McGuigan, M. Transference effect of short-term optimum power load training on the punching impact of elite boxers. J Strength Cond Res 35(9): 2373-2378, 2021-This study examined the changes in bench press (BP), jump squat (JS), and half-squat (HS) power outputs induced by a short-term (1 week) training scheme based on the optimum power load (OPL) applied to national boxing athletes and measured the transference effect coefficient (TEC) of these exercises on punching impact. Eight elite boxing athletes from the Brazilian National team participated in this study. Athletes were tested before and after 3 power-oriented training sessions performed at the OPL. The physical assessments comprised punching impact measures (jabs and crosses) at fixed and self-selected distances, and bar-power output in BP, HS, and JS exercises. Magnitude-based differences were used to compare pre-training and post-training sessions. Transference effect coefficient was calculated as the ratio between the result gain in the "untrained exercises" (punching impact in jabs and crosses) and "trained exercises" (HS, JS, and BP), for variables presenting an effect size of at least 0.2. The OPL training elicited meaningful increases in the punching impact forces (∼8%) and in both JS and HS power outputs (∼12 and ∼14%, respectively), but not in BP power output. There was an effective transference (TEC = ∼0.80) of JS and HS performance gains to punching impact force, suggesting that increases in lower-limb power can be directly transferred to punching impact. These results provide coaches and practitioners with valuable information about how to rapidly and effectively increase the punching impact force of elite amateur boxers.

The radar gun is a valid and practically feasible tool to measure sprinting speed and kinetics among athletes. However, its reliability in youth populations, particularly females, is unknown. There...

Background The acute effects of resistance training (RT) set structure alteration are well established; however, less is known about their effects on chronic training adaptations. Objective The aim of this systematic review and meta-analysis was to synthesise the available evidence on the effectiveness of traditional (TS), cluster (CS) and rest redistribution (RR) set structures in promoting chronic RT adaptations, and provide an overview of the factors which might differentially influence the magnitude of specific training adaptations between set structure types. Methods This review was performed using the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines encompassing the literature search of five databases. Studies in English that compared muscular strength, endurance, and/or hypertrophy adaptations, as well as vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts in the slopes of force-velocity profiles between TS and CS or RR set structures (i.e., alternative set structures) were included. Risk of bias assessment was performed using a modified Cochrane Collaboration's tool for assessing risk of bias in randomised trials. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were performed where possible. Results 17 studies met the inclusion criteria, none had more than one risk of bias item assessed as high risk. Pooled results revealed that none of the set structures were more effective at inducing strength (standardised mean difference (SMD) = - 0.06) or hypertrophy (SMD = - 0.03). TS were more effective at improving muscular endurance compared to alternative set structures (SMD = - 0.38), whereas alternative set structures tended to be more effective for vertical jump performance gains (SMD = 0.13), but this effect was not statistically significant (p = 0.190). Greater velocity and power outputs at submaximal loads (SMD = 0.18) were observed when using alternative set structures compared to TS. In addition, alternative set structures promoted greater shifts of the slope of force-velocity profiles towards more velocity dominant profiles compared to TS (SMD = 0.28). Sub-group analyses controlling for each alternative set structure independently showed mixed results likely caused by the relatively small number of studies available for some outcomes. Conclusion Modifying TS to an alternative set structure (CS or RR) has a negligible impact on strength and hypertrophy. Using CS and RR can lead to greater vertical jump performance, velocity and power at submaximal loads and shifts to more velocity dominant force-velocity profiles compared to training using TS. However, TS may provide more favourable effects on muscle endurance when compared to CS and RR. These findings demonstrate that altering TS to alternative set structures may influence the magnitude of specific muscular adaptations indicating set structure manipulation is an important consideration for RT program design. Protocol registration The original protocol was prospectively registered (CRD42019138954) with the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews).

Loturco, I, Pereira, LA, Reis, VP, Zanetti, V, Bishop, C, and Mcguigan, MR. Traditional free-weight vs. variable resistance training applied to elite young soccer players during a short preseason: Effects on strength, speed, and power performance. J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3432-3439, 2022-Maximizing the neuromuscular capacities of players is a critical challenge during short soccer preseasons. This study compared the effects of 2 strength-power training regimes, on the strength, speed, and power performance of elite young soccer players during a 4-week preseason. Twenty-five under-20 players from the same club were pair matched in 2 training groups as follows: traditional training group (TTG) ( n = 13), athletes performed half-squat (HS) and jump-squat (JS) exercises as traditionally prescribed, and elastic band (EB) group (EBG) ( n = 12), athletes performed HS and JS with EB attached to the barbell. Vertical jump height, 20-m sprint velocity, change of direction (COD) speed, HS and JS power, and 1 repetition maximum (1RM) in the HS were assessed before, after 2-week, and after 4-week of training. A two-way analysis of variance with repeated measures was used to assess the effects of both training protocols over the experimental period. Both strategies were effective for significantly improving HS and JS power (effect sizes [ESs] = 1.00-1.77), HS 1RM (ES = 1.68 and 1.51 for TTG and EBG, respectively), vertical jumping ability (ES = 0.37-0.65), and COD speed (ES = 0.81 and 0.39 for TTG and EBG, respectively), when comparing premeasures and postmeasures. By contrast, both TTG and EBG failed to increase 20-m sprint velocity (ES ranging between -0.54 and 0.23). In conclusion, both training schemes were able to improve the strength and power performance but not the sprint capacity of young soccer players. To accelerate strength gains over very-short time periods (i.e., 2 weeks), variable resistance training may be advantageous. Conversely, to optimize power adaptations in ballistic exercises across a similar time period, traditional free-weight training may be preferred.

Dowse, RA, McGuigan, MR, and Harrison, C. Effects of a resistance training intervention on strength, power, and performance in adolescent dancers. J Strength Cond Res 34(12): 3446-3453, 2020-The aim of this study was to determine whether a 9-week resistance training program could have a significant effect on maximum lower-body strength and power, dynamic balance, and dance performance in adolescent dancers. Twelve competitive adolescent female dancers trained in jazz, ballet, and contemporary were recruited from local dance schools and assigned to a resistance training group (dance experience 9.2 ± 2.4 years; age 14.2 ± 1.9 years; height 155.6 ± 9.1 cm; and mass 48.9 ± 13.8 kg). Anthropometry (height, seated height, mass, and skinfolds), subjective dancing performance, dynamic balance (eyes open [EO] and eyes closed), maximum lower-body strength (isometric midthigh pull), and power (vertical countermovement jump, squat jump, and single-leg countermovement jump) were assessed before and after the 9-week intervention period. Post-testing identified a significant improvement EO overall stability (p = 0.003; effect size [ES] = 0.88), EO anterior-posterior stability (p = 0.003; ES = 0.92), peak force (p < 0.001; ES = 0.61), peak power (p = 0.021; ES = 0.22), and subjective dancing performance (p = 0.008; ES = 0.76). These results were accompanied by a trivial but significant change in mass (p = 0.023; ES = 0.09) that was attributed to growth and no significant change in body fat or the sum of skinfolds. This study demonstrated that resistance training can have a significant effect on dynamic balance, maximum lower-body strength, and power without adversely affecting artistic or aesthetic components. The results suggest that incorporating resistance training may enhance strength and power adaptations and manage growth-related changes in adolescent dancers.

Loturco, I, McGuigan, MR, Suchomel, T, Freitas, TT, Rodríguez-Rosell, D, Pereira, LA, and Pareja-Blanco, F. Determining the one repetition maximum in the ballistic bench press exercise. J Strength Cond Res 34(12): 3321-3325, 2020-The purpose of this study was to determine the relative load (% of one repetition maximum [1RM]) at which the concentric action becomes entirely propulsive in the bench press (BP) exercise and verify whether this relative load varies between athletes with different strength levels. Twenty-eight professional athletes (Olympic boxers, professional mixed martial arts fighters, and elite rugby players) performed a progressive loading test up to their 1RM in the BP exercise (BP-1RM). Athletes were ordered according to their relative strength values and equally divided into 2 different groups: "low" (≤1.34) and "high" (≥1.38) strength levels. An independent t-test was used to compare the variables between groups. Significance level was set at p0.05. No significant differences were observed between the groups for the mean propulsive velocity attained at 1RM and for the maximum load that required braking action during the execution of the traditional BP exercise (effect size = 0.27 and 0.15, respectively; p0.05). Our results revealed that at 80% 1RM the concentric action can already be considered as 100% propulsive in the BP exercise. Importantly, this occurrence was independent of strength level. Therefore, this relative strength measure (i.e., 80% BP-1RM) may be used as a reference for the 1RM in the BP throw.

Spence, A-J, Helms, ER, and McGuigan, MR. Stretching practices of International Powerlifting Federation unequipped powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 36(12): 3456-3461, 2022-Stretching practices in powerlifters. The purpose of this study was to provide insight into the stretching practices of competitive powerlifters. Powerlifters ( n = 319) from 51 countries completed a self-reported online survey on stretching practices. Subjects had (mean ± SD , median, and interquartile range) 7.7 ± 6.1, 6, and 6 years of general resisting training, 4.4 ± 4.5, 3, and 3 years of strength specific training, and been competing in powerlifting for 3.0 ± 3.7, 2, and 2 years with the average Wilks score being 366.4 ± 52.2, 365, and 60. Analysis by sex and competitive standard was conducted. More than 50% (52.4%) of subjects ( n = 167) reported stretching; of those, 84.4% performed static stretches, and 90.4% performed dynamic stretches. Stretching was performed before resistance training by 77.8%, after resistance training by 43.7%, and 53.9% stretched independent of resistance training. Powerlifters who performed static stretches before training did an average of 6.72 ± 10.31, 5, and 8 repetitions per stretch and held those stretches for an average of 30.8 ± 31.4, 20, and 15 seconds; 90.1% also performed dynamic stretches. Powerlifters who performed static stretches after or independent of training did an average of 4.1 ± 4.2, 2, and 9 repetitions per stretch and held those stretches for an average of 42.9 ± 30.8, 30, and 33 seconds. The majority of powerlifters (66.9%) programmed stretching themselves, whereas only 10.2% had stretching programmed by their coach. These data will inform athletes and coaches about the prevalence and characteristics of current stretching practices in powerlifters.

The alteration of individual sets during resistance training (RT) is often used to allow for greater velocity and power outputs, reduce metabolite accumulation such as lactate and also reduce perceived exertion which can ultimately affect the resultant training adaptations. However, there are inconsistencies in the current body of evidence regarding the magnitude of the effects of alternative set structures (i.e., cluster sets and rest redistribution) on these acute mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual responses during and after RT. This study aimed to systematically review and meta-analyse current evidence on the differences between traditional and alternative (cluster and rest redistribution) set structures on acute mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual responses during and after RT, and to discuss potential reasons for the disparities noted in the literature. The Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines were followed, and five databases were searched until June 2019. Studies were included when they were written in English and compared at least one acute mechanical, metabolic, or perceptual response between traditional, cluster or traditional and rest redistribution set structures in healthy adults. Random-effects meta-analyses and meta-regressions were performed where possible. Thirty-two studies were included. Pooled results revealed that alternative set structures allowed for greater absolute mean [standardized mean difference (SMD) = 0.60] and peak velocity (SMD = 0.41), and mean (SMD = 0.33) and peak power (SMD = 0.38) during RT. In addition, alternative set structures were also highly effective at mitigating a decline in velocity and power variables during (SMD = 0.83–1.97) and after RT (SMD = 0.58) as well as reducing lactate accumulation (SMD = 1.61) and perceived exertion (SMD = 0.81). These effects of alternative set structures on velocity and power decline and maintenance during RT were considerably larger than for absolute velocity and power variables. Sub-group analyses controlling for each alternative set structure independently showed that cluster sets were generally more effective than rest redistribution in alleviating mechanical, metabolic, and perceptual markers of fatigue. Alternative set structures can reduce mechanical fatigue, perceptual exertion, and metabolic stress during and after RT. However, fundamental differences in the amount of total rest time results in cluster sets generally being more effective than rest redistribution in alleviating fatigue-induced changes during RT, which highlights the importance of classifying them independently in research and in practice. Additionally, absolute values (i.e., mean session velocity or power), as well as decline and maintenance of the mechanical outcomes during RT, and residual mechanical fatigue after RT, are all affected differently by alternative set structures, suggesting that these variables may provide distinct information that can inform future training decisions. The original protocol was prospectively registered (CRD42019138954) with the PROSPERO (International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews).

The present study aimed to provide reference values for lower-limb muscle power assessed during the incremental jump squat (JS) test in elite athletes (i.e., professional athletes competing at international level). We pooled data from all JS tests performed by elite athletes of different sports in two high-performance centres between 2015 and 2019, and computed reference values (i.e., terciles) for mean power (MP), mean propulsive power (MPP), and peak power (PP). Reference values were obtained from 684 elite athletes (458 male and 226 female) of 16 different sports (boxing, judo, karate, fencing, taekwondo, wrestling, basketball, soccer, futsal, handball, rugby union, badminton, tennis, long distance running, triathlon, and sprinting). Significant differences (p 0.001) were found between male and female athletes for MP (7.47 ± 1.93 and 6.15 ± 1.68 W·Kg

Objectives Recent research has revealed that low volume resistance ‘priming’ exercise may improve neuromuscular performance when completed within 48 h before competition. The aim of this study was to investigate the current prevalence and application of this strategy by practitioners in sport. Design This study surveyed practitioners who were currently programming and/or prescribing resistance training programs for high performance athletes. Methods Sixty-nine practitioners completed the online survey relating to their perceptions of resistance priming exercise strategies and the training methods prescribed in the days prior to competition. Results Fifty-one percent of respondents currently prescribed priming exercise. Of the practitioners who prescribed this strategy, most respondents (59%) prescribed this session within 8 h of competition. Sessions typically included 2–3 upper body and lower body exercises (mean = 2.5 ± 0.7 and 2.1 ± 0.6 respectively), usually involving both loaded and unloaded activities. Large variations in exercise selection were reported, however, unloaded jumps (87%), loaded jumps (60%) and bench press (56%) were commonly prescribed. A low volume of sets (mean = 2.8 ± 0.9) and repetitions (mean = 3.8 ± 1.3) were used during these sessions. Lastly, various resistance loading strategies were prescribed, ranging from unloaded activities to heavy loaded exercises performed at ≥85% 1RM. Conclusions Priming exercise is currently prescribed by many practitioners to prepare athletes for competition. A wide range of priming exercise methods are used, despite limited evidence supporting these methods. Future research should examine the effects of the various priming methods which are currently applied in practice.

We examined the relationships between change of direction (COD) speed and deficit, and a series of speed- and power-related measurements in national team rugby union players and analyzed the influence of movement patterns on COD ability. Eleven male athletes completed the following physical assessments on different days: day 1—anthropometric measurements, and lower-body kinematic parameters (assessed with eight inertial sensors) and completion time in COD tests (pro-agility, 45° cutting maneuver (CUT), and “L” (L-Drill)); day 2—bilateral and unilateral squat and countermovement jumps, 40 m linear sprint, and bar-power output in the jump squat and half-squat exercises. Pearson’s product–moment correlations were performed to determine the relationships between COD velocities, COD deficits, and the speed–power variables. Differences between players with higher and lower COD deficits were examined using magnitude-based inferences. Results showed that (1) greater sprint momentum was associated with higher COD deficits, particularly in drills with sharper angles and multiple directional changes (L-drill and pro-agility); (2) higher unilateral jump heights were associated with greater COD deficits in the pro-agility and L-drill but not in the CUT; (3) faster athletes were less efficient at changing direction and presented greater trunk and knee flexion angles during COD maneuvers, probably as a consequence of higher inertia.

Sprinting speed is a crucial physical capacity and can change throughout an athlete’s growth. Previous research has shown that both kinetic and kinematic variables change across maturation in young males. However, due to the changes in growth and hormonal levels, the kinetic and kinematic factors associated with sprinting may vary in young females compared to their male counterparts. Therefore, determining kinetics (force, maximal power) and kinematics (step length, step frequency, contact time and flight time) associated with sprinting in young females can provide valuable insights into training for this cohort. Thirty-two young female athletes, 11 mid-peak height velocity (PHV) age (12.8±0.6) and 21 post PHV (13.5±0.93) performed two 15 and 30 m sprints each. Theoretical velocity, maximal velocity, step length, force and power max were significantly higher in post PHV girls (p

Speed is a crucial factor for overall athletic development. While researchers have shown strength and plyometric training to improve sprinting speed in some adult and youth populations, no studies have compared the effects of strength and plyometric training on sprinting speed in young females. Fifty-two young females were divided into three groups and trained for 7 weeks, twice a week; strength training (n = 16, age 13.36 ± 0.84), plyometric training (n = 21, age 13.38 ± 0.75) and a physical education class as a control group (n = 15, age 13.95 ± 0.54). Participants were tested for sprinting performance and horizontal force (

Spence, A-J, Helms, ER, and McGuigan, MR. Range of motion is not reduced in national-level New Zealand female powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 35(10): 2737-2741, 2021-Some research suggests male powerlifters have less range of motion (ROM) in several directions about the shoulder and hip compared with sedentary men. In addition, those differences may be more pronounced in groups with higher strength levels and more years of experience. However, there is no information on ROM in female powerlifters. The purpose of this study was to evaluate single-joint ROM in competitive female powerlifters and determine whether single-joint ROM would be an effective predictor of strength in this population. Twelve female powerlifters and 12 female recreationally trained age-matched controls attended one testing session. Subjects reported their years of training experience, frequency, and average duration of training sessions. Active ROM measurements were collected at the shoulder, hip, and knee, using goniometry. There was no significant difference (p > 0.05) between groups for age, height, body mass, training experience, and training frequency. Powerlifters reported significantly greater (p ≤ 0.05) training durations than recreationally trained women. Powerlifters had significantly greater shoulder horizontal abduction on the right side (p = 0.022, g = 0.97), but no other ranges were significantly different between groups, and no ranges were significantly related to strength. Powerlifting does not seem to affect shoulder, hip, or knee ROM differently than recreational resistance training in women. Single-joint ROM was not an effective predictor of strength in female powerlifters.

This study aimed to examine the effects of two jump squat (JS) training programs involving different loading ranges in under-20 soccer players during a preseason period. Twenty-three elite young soccer players performed sprint speed (at 5-, 10-, and 20-m), change-of-direction (COD) speed, JS peak-power (PP), and countermovement jump (CMJ) tests pre and post four weeks of training. Athletes were pair-matched in two groups according to their optimum power loads (OPL) as follows: lower than OPL (LOPL; athletes who trained at a load 20% lower than the OPL) and higher than OPL (HOPL; athletes who trained at a load 20% higher than the OPL). Magnitude-based inferences were used to compare pre- and post-training measures. Meaningful increases in the PP JS were observed for both groups. Likely and possible improvements were observed in the 5- and 10-m sprint velocity in the LOPL group. Meanwhile, possible and likely improvements were observed in the CMJ, 5- and 10-m sprint velocity, and COD speed in the HOPL group. Overall, both training schemes induced positive changes in athletic performance. Soccer coaches and sport scientists can implement the JS OPL-based training schemes presented here, either separately or combined, to improve the physical performance of youth soccer players.

The aim of this study was to examine changes in body mass (BM) and power-related measures in Olympic boxers during an official qualifying boxing tournament. Fourteen elite amateur boxers from the Brazilian National Team (eight men and six women) participated in this study. Athletes performed three fights in four days against the same opponent of the same weight-category. Before and immediately after every fight, BM, countermovement jump (CMJ) height, and power production in the bench-press and half-squat exercises were assessed in the same order and on the same time of the day. A two-way repeated-measures ANOVA with the Bonferroni post-hoc analysis was used to determine the variations between pre- and post-measures. The statistical significance was set as p &lt, 0.05. The athletes were able to maintain their baseline weight and physical performance throughout the experimental period, as shown by the lack of significant changes in BM, CMJ height, and upper- and lower-limb power output. Throughout a four-day qualifying tournament, the BM and power-related performance of Olympic boxers were not affected either by match execution or by successive matches. As scoring actions are highly dependent on muscle power, it is likely that these combat athletes are able to maintain optimal levels of performance across consecutive matches.

Watkins, CM, Gill, ND, Maunder, E, Downes, P, Young, JD, McGuigan, MR, and Storey, AG. The effect of low-volume preseason plyometric training on force-velocity profiles in semiprofessional rugby union players. J Strength Cond Res 35(3): 604-615, 2021-Rugby union is a physically demanding and complex team sport requiring athletes across all positions to express speed and acceleration. Plyometrics can effectively improve speed profiles by enhancing both force- and velocity-(FV) characteristics; however, the optimal dose and exercise direction for trained athletes is still relatively unknown. Therefore, the aim of this investigation was to determine the efficacy of a low-dose, directionally specific plyometric training program for improving speed profiles in semiprofessional rugby players. Players were randomly allocated to one of 2 plyometric training groups that performed low-volume (40-60 ground contacts per session) plyometrics twice weekly, or a control group that did not participate in any plyometric training. The 2 training groups underwent reverse back-to-back three-week vertically and horizontally focused plyometric training programs, with a 12-day washout. Body composition, aerobic capacity, and sprint performance (10-, 20-, 30-m split time, horizontal FV profile) were measured. During the intervention, HV-1 (horizontal/vertical training group 1) improved sprint performance (n = 12; ∆30 m = -0.020 seconds; p = 0.038), VH-2 (vertical/horizontal training group 2) maintained sprint performance (n = 8; ∆30 m = +0.049 seconds; p = 0.377), and the control group progressively declined in sprint performance (n = 12; ∆30 m = +0.071; p = 0.019). In addition, vertical plyometrics may preferentially benefit secondary acceleration (∆10-20 m split time: -0.01 seconds; p = 0.03) and many force-oriented FV profile characteristics. Correlational analyses (r2 = -0.568 to 0.515) showed sprint improvements were hindered in athletes with lower initial aerobic fitness, suggesting accumulated fatigue may have limited the magnitude of adaptation. Therefore, including low-volume plyometric training may be beneficial for improving sprint profiles or attenuating decrements realized during periods of high-volume sport-specific training.

The session rating of perceived exertion (sRPE) method was developed 25 years ago as a modification of the Borg concept of rating of perceived exertion (RPE), designed to estimate the intensity of an entire training session. It appears to be well accepted as a marker of the internal training load. Early studies demonstrated that sRPE correlated well with objective measures of internal training load, such as the percentage of heart rate reserve and blood lactate concentration. It has been shown to be useful in a wide variety of exercise activities ranging from aerobic to resistance to games. It has also been shown to be useful in populations ranging from patients to elite athletes. The sRPE is a reasonable measure of the average RPE acquired across an exercise session. Originally designed to be acquired ∼30 minutes after a training bout to prevent the terminal elements of an exercise session from unduly influencing the rating, sRPE has been shown to be temporally robust across periods ranging from 1 minute to 14 days following an exercise session. Within the training impulse concept, sRPE, or other indices derived from sRPE, has been shown to be able to account for both positive and negative training outcomes and has contributed to our understanding of how training is periodized to optimize training outcomes and to understand maladaptations such as overtraining syndrome. The sRPE as a method of monitoring training has the advantage of extreme simplicity. While it is not ideal for the precise recording of the details of the external training load, it has large advantages relative to evaluating the internal training load.

Loturco, I, McGuigan, MR, Rodríguez-Rosell, D, Pereira, LA, and Pareja-Blanco, F. A novel strategy to determine the 1-repetition maximum in the jump squat exercise. J Strength Cond Res 36(8): 2330-2334, 2022-This study aimed to determine the maximum relative load of the half-squat (HS; i.e., % HS 1-repetition maximum [1RM]) that can be used in its ballistic variation, namely, the jump squat (JS) exercise, and to examine whether this reference value varies in subjects with different strength levels. In total, 186 elite athletes from 10 distinct sport disciplines participated in this study. A progressive loading test up to HS 1RM was performed during the competitive phase of the season for all athletes. Mean propulsive velocity and propulsive phase duration were also assessed during the 1RM test. Athletes were divided into 3 distinct subgroups: "low," "middle," and "high" strength levels, based on their relative HS 1RM values (kg·kg -1 ). A 1-way analysis of variance was used to compare the variables assessed between the groups. Significance level was set at p0.05. The high group demonstrated the highest relative HS 1RM values, followed by the middle and low groups (all p0.05). No significant differences were observed between the groups for the remaining variables ( p0.05). It was observed that at 86.0 ± 5.4% 1RM, the full concentric action can already be considered as entirely propulsive in the HS exercise for all subjects, independent of their strength levels. Therefore, this relative strength value may be used as a reference for the 1RM in the JS exercise.

This study aimed to examine the effects of different sled overloads on maximum sprint velocity achieved by female soccer players with different strength, speed, and power levels. Twenty elite female soccer players from the same club participated. On the same day, athletes performed: linear and resisted-sprint tests with 30 and 60 % of body-mass over 5-, 10-, and 20-m; half-squat maximum bar-power output, and half-squat one-repetition maximum assessment. A median split analysis was used to divide players into two groups according to their velocity, half-squat one-repetition maximum, and half-squat power. Differences in percentage decreases between unresisted- and resisted-sprints comparing higher and lower groups were analyzed using magnitude-based inferences. Overall, the stronger, faster, and more powerful players were less affected by both loads, as demonstrated by their lower decreases in velocity over the different distances. However, half-squat power appeared to be more sensitive for indicating impairments in resisted-sprint performance, due to meaningful differences in percentage decreases observed between higher and lower power groups. Notably, overloads of 30 and 60% of body-mass provoked substantial reductions in resisted-sprint velocity (~22.9% for 30% and ~51.4% for 60% of body-mass, relative to unresisted-sprint velocity). Athletes with superior power levels are less affected by the progressive sled overloading.

Douglas, J, Pearson, S, Ross, A, and McGuigan, M. Effects of accentuated eccentric loading on muscle properties, strength, power, and speed in resistance-trained rugby players. J Strength Cond Res 32(10): 2750-2761, 2018-The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of slow and fast tempo resistance training incorporating accentuated eccentric loading (AEL) compared with traditional resistance training (TRT) in trained rugby players. Fourteen subjects (19.4 ± 0.8 years, 1.82 ± 0.05 m, 97.0 ± 11.6 kg, and relative back squat 1 repetition maximum [1RM]: 1.71 ± 0.24 kg·BM) completed either AEL (n = 7) or TRT (n = 7) strength and power protocols. Two 4-week phases of training were completed. The first phase emphasized a slow eccentric tempo, and the second phase emphasized a fast eccentric tempo. Back squat 1RM, inertial load peak power, drop jump reactive strength index (RSI), 40-m speed, maximum sprinting velocity (Vmax), and vastus lateralis (VL) muscle architectural variables were determined at baseline and after each phase of training. Slow AEL elicited superior improvements in back squat 1RM (+0.12 kg·BM; effect size [ES]: 0.48; and 90% confidence interval [CI]: 0.14, 0.82), 40-m time (-0.07 seconds; ES: 0.28; and CI: 0.01-0.55), and Vmax (+0.20 m·s; ES: 0.52; and CI: 0.18-0.86) vs. slow TRT. Fast AEL elicited a small increase in RSI but impaired speed. There was a likely greater increase in peak power with fast TRT (+0.72 W·kg; ES: 0.40; and CI: 0.00-0.79) vs. fast AEL alongside a small increase in VL pennation angle. The short-term incorporation of slow AEL was superior to TRT in improving strength and maximum velocity sprinting speed in rugby players undertaking a concurrent preparatory program. The second 4-week phase of fast AEL may have exceeded recovery capabilities compared with fast TRT.

Bourgeois, FA II, Gamble, P, Gill, ND, and McGuigan, MR. The relationship between multidirectional jumping and performance in change of direction tasks. J Strength Cond Res 32(3): 690-699, 2018-This study investigated the test-retest reliability of 2 change of direction (COD; 180 and 45° COD) sprints and 3 multidirectional jump (MDJ) tests. Variables examined were approach time (sprint before plant-step), exit time (sprint after plant-step), total time (time to completion) and MDJ approach time, and distance, respectively. Second, the ability of MDJ tests to predict performance in COD tests was examined. Twenty men (age: 27.5 ± 5.9 years; height: 1.79 ± 0.1 m; and body mass: 79.1 ± 12.0 kg) performed 5 trials for each assessment, executing left plant-leg (LT) and right plant-leg (RT) steps, on 2 testing occasions separated by 7 days. Between-session and within-session intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and coefficients of variation (CVs) for all measurements were calculated. Usefulness of COD and MDJ tests was assessed using typical error and smallest worthwhile change (SWC) comparison. Results showed only one MDJ measurement generated unstable between-session reliability. Within-session reliability of approach and exit COD times, and MDJ approach times possessed confidence limits (90% CL) that extended below 0.75 ICC. All COD total times and MDJ distances presented high reliability (ICC = 0.87-0.99) with low CV (0.9-4.1%). Right-leg MDJ distances were predictors of RT COD performances (r = 0.50-0.68, p = 0.001-0.024), whereas LT MDJ distances were predictors of LT180 COD performance (r = 0.67-0.71, p = 0.001). All measurements were useful in detecting SWC in performance. These findings suggest the COD tests and MDJ distances are reliable for assessing and monitoring COD performance in similar cohorts.

Pritchard, HJ, Barnes, MJ, Stewart, RJC, Keogh, JWL, and McGuigan, MR. Short-term training cessation as a method of tapering to improve maximal strength. J Strength Cond Res 32(2): 458-465, 2018-The aim of this study was to determine the effects of 2 different durations of training cessation on upper- and lower-body maximal strength performance and to investigate the mechanisms underlying performance changes following short-term training cessation. Eight resistance trained males (23.8 ± 5.4 years, 79.6 ± 10.2 kg, 1.80 ± 0.06 m, relative deadlift 1 repetition maximum of 1.90 ± 0.30 times bodyweight [BW]) each completed two 4-week strength training periods followed by either 3.5 days (3.68 ± 0.12 days) or 5.5 days (5.71 ± 0.13 days) of training cessation. Testing occurred pretraining (T1), on the final day of training (T2), and after each respective period of training cessation (T3). Participants were tested for salivary testosterone and cortisol, plasma creatine kinase, psychological profiles, and performance tests (countermovement jump [CMJ], isometric midthigh pull, and isometric bench press [IBP]) on a force plate. Participants' BW increased significantly over time (p = 0.022). The CMJ height and IBP peak force showed significant increases over time (p = 0.013, 0.048, and 0.004, respectively). Post hoc testing showed a significant increase between T1 and T3 for both CMJ height and IBP peak force (p = 0.022 and 0.008 with effect sizes of 0.30 and 0.21, respectively). No other significant differences were seen for any other measures. These results suggest that a short period of strength training cessation can have positive effects on maximal strength expression, perhaps because of decreases in neuromuscular fatigue.

Purpose:To establish the relationship between the acute:chronic workload ratio and lower-extremity overuse injuries in professional basketball players over the course of a competitive season. Methods:The acute:chronic workload ratio was determined by calculating the sum of the current week’s session rating of perceived exertion of training load (acute load) and dividing it by the average weekly training load over the previous 4 wk (chronic load). All injuries were recorded weekly using a self-report injury questionnaire (Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center Injury Questionnaire20). Workload ratios were modeled against injury data using a logistic-regression model with unique intercepts for each player. Results:Substantially fewer team members were injured after workload ratios of 1 to 1.49 (36%) than with very low (≤0.5; 54%), low (0.5–0.99; 51%), or high (≥1.5; 59%) workload ratios. The regression model provided unique workload–injury trends for each player, but all mean differences in likelihood of being injured between workload ratios were unclear. Conclusions:Maintaining workload ratios of 1 to 1.5 may be optimal for athlete preparation in professional basketball. An individualized approach to modeling and monitoring the training load–injury relationship, along with a symptom-based injury-surveillance method, should help coaches and performance staff with individualized training-load planning and prescription and with developing athlete-specific recovery and rehabilitation strategies.

This study investigated the role of reactive and eccentric strength in stiffness regulation during maximum velocity sprinting (Vmax) in team sport athletes compared with highly trained sprinters. Thirteen team sport athletes and eleven highly trained sprinters were recruited. Vmax was measured using radar, and stiffness regulation was inferred from modelled vertical and leg spring stiffness. Reactive strength (RSI) was determined from a 0.50 m drop jump, and an eccentric back squat was used to assess maximum isoinertial eccentric force. Trained sprinters attained a higher Vmax than team sport athletes, partly due to a briefer contact time and higher vertical stiffness. Trained sprinters exhibited a moderately higher RSI via the attainment of a briefer and more forceful ground contact phase, while RSI also demonstrated large to very large associations with vertical stiffness and Vmax, respectively. Isoinertial eccentric force was largely correlated with Vmax, but only moderately correlated with vertical stiffness. Reactive and eccentric strength contribute to the ability to regulate leg spring stiffness at Vmax, and subsequently, the attainment of faster sprinting speeds in highly trained sprinters versus team sport athletes. However, stiffness regulation appears to be a task-specific neuromuscular skill, reinforcing the importance of specificity in the development of sprint performance.

This study aimed to investigate the association between the optimum power load in the bench press (BP), shoulder press (SP), and prone bench pull (PBP) exercises and acceleration (ACC) and speed performances in 11 National Team wheelchair basketball (WB) players with similar levels of disability. All athletes were previously familiarized with the testing procedures that were performed on the same day during the competitive period of the season. First, athletes performed a wheelchair 20-m sprint assessment and, subsequently, a maximum power load test to determine the mean propulsive power (MPP) in the BP, SP, and PBP. A Pearson product–moment correlation was used to examine the relationships between sprint velocity (VEL), ACC, and the MPP in the three exercises. The significance level was set as p r varying from .60 to .77; p

Recent scientific evidence supports the use of a low-volume strength–power ‘resistance priming’ session prior to sporting competition in an effort to enhance neuromuscular performance. Though research evidence relating to this strategy is presently limited, it has been shown to be effective in improving various measures of neuromuscular performance within 48 h. Post-activation potentiation strategies have previously been shown to enhance strength–power performance within 20 min of completing maximal or near-maximal resistance exercise. Comparably, a delayed potentiation effect has been demonstrated following ‘resistance priming’ at various times between 1 and 48 h in upper- and lower-body performance measures. This may have significant implications for a range of athletes when preparing for competition. Various exercise protocols have been shown to improve upper- and lower-body neuromuscular performance measures in this period. In particular, high-intensity resistance exercise through high loading (≥ 85% 1 repetition maximum) or ballistic exercise at lower loads appears to be an effective stimulus for this strategy. Although current research has identified the benefits of resistance priming to some physical qualities, many questions remain over the application of this type of session, as well as the effects that it may have on a range of specific sporting activities. The aims of this brief review are to assess the current literature examining the acute effects (1–48 h) of resistance exercise on neuromuscular performance and discuss potential mechanisms of action as well as provide directions for future research.

An eccentric contraction involves the active lengthening of muscle under an external load. The molecular and neural mechanisms underpinning eccentric contractions differ from those of concentric and isometric contractions and remain less understood. A number of molecular theories have been put forth to explain the unexplained observations during eccentric contractions that deviate from the predictions of the established theories of muscle contraction. Postulated mechanisms include a strain-induced modulation of actin-myosin interactions at the level of the cross-bridge, the activation of the structural protein titin, and the winding of titin on actin. Accordingly, neural strategies controlling eccentric contractions also differ with a greater, and possibly distinct, cortical activation observed despite an apparently lower activation at the level of the motor unit. The characteristics of eccentric contractions are associated with several acute physiological responses to eccentrically-emphasised exercise. Differences in neuromuscular, metabolic, hormonal and anabolic signalling responses during, and following, an eccentric exercise bout have frequently been observed in comparison to concentric exercise. Subsequently, the high levels of muscular strain with such exercise can induce muscle damage which is rarely observed with other contraction types. The net result of these eccentric contraction characteristics and responses appears to be a novel adaptive signal within the neuromuscular system.

Pritchard, HJ, Tod, DA, Barnes, MJ, Keogh, JW, and McGuigan, MR. Tapering practices of New Zealand's elite raw powerlifters. J Strength Cond Res 30(7): 1796-1804, 2016-The major aim of this study was to determine tapering strategies of elite powerlifters. Eleven New Zealand powerlifters (28.4 ± 7.0 years, best Wilks score of 431.9 ± 43.9 points) classified as elite were interviewed, using semistructured interviews, about their tapering strategies. Interviews were transcribed verbatim and content analyzed. Total training volume peaked 5.2 ± 1.7 weeks from competition while average training intensity (of 1 repetition maximum) peaked 1.9 ± 0.8 weeks from competition. During tapering, volume was reduced by 58.9 ± 8.4% while intensity was maintained (or slightly reduced) and the final weight training session was performed 3.7 ± 1.6 days out from competition. Participants generally stated that tapering was performed to achieve full recovery; that accessory work was removed around 2 weeks out from competition; and deadlifting takes longer to recover from than other lifts. Typically participants stated that trial and error, and changes based on "feel" were the sources of tapering strategies; equipment used and movements performed during tapering are the same as in competition; nutrition was manipulated during the taper (for weight cutting or performance aims); and poor tapering occurred when too long (1 week or more) was taken off training. These results suggest that athletes may benefit from continuing to strength train before important events with reduced volume and maintained intensity. Only exercises that directly assist sports performance should remain in the strength program during tapering, to assist with reductions in fatigue while maintaining/improving strength expression and performance.

This study examined the selective influences of one-repetition maximum (1RM) values [assessed in the half-squat (HS)] and bar-power production [assessed in both HS and jump squat (JS) exercises] on the physical performance of male and female team sport athletes from four different sports. Three-hundred and three elite players (31 Olympians) from four different disciplines (47 male soccer players, 58 female soccer players, 28 male handball players, 58 female handball players, 49 male rugby players, and 63 male futsal players) participated in this study. The physical tests were performed over 2 consecutive days for soccer and rugby players, and in 1 day for the remaining athletes. On the first day, rugby and soccer athletes performed squat jumps (SJ), countermovement jumps (CMJ), and HS 1RM. On the second day, they executed HS and JS tests (to assess the maximum bar-power output) and the linear and change-of-direction (COD) speed tests. For the other players, the sequence of the measurements was the same; however, they did not perform the HS exercise. Athletes were separated, using a median split analysis, into two distinct groups, according to their bar-power output in both JS and HS exercises and their performance in HS 1RM. The magnitude-based inferences method was used to examine the differences between "higher" and "lower" performance groups. Overall, the bar-power outputs were better connected to improved acceleration, speed, and jump performance than the 1RM measures. From these findings, it is possible to infer that players able to produce higher bar-power outputs are likely to sprint faster and jump higher. Therefore, coaches involved in team sports are strongly encouraged to use the bar-power method to evaluate the athletic performance of their players.

Background\ud Researchers have tested the beliefs of sportspeople and sports medicine specialists that cognitive strategies influence strength performance. Few investigators have synthesised the literature.\ud Objectives\ud The specific objectives were to review evidence regarding (a) the cognitive strategy–strength performance relationship; (b) participant skill level as a moderator; and (c) cognitive, motivational, biomechanical/physiological, and emotional mediators.\ud Method\ud Studies were sourced via electronic databases, reference lists of retrieved articles, and manual searches of relevant journals. Studies had to be randomised or counterbalanced experiments with a control group or condition, repeated measures, and a quality control score above 0.5 (out of 1). Cognitive strategies included goal setting, imagery, self-talk, preparatory arousal, and free choice. Dependent variables included maximal strength, local muscular endurance, or muscular power.\ud Results\ud Globally, cognitive strategies were reliability associated with increased strength performance (results ranged from 61 to 65 %). Results were mixed when examining the effects of specific strategies on particular dependent variables, although no intervention had an overall negative influence. Indeterminate relationships emerged regarding hypothesised mediators (except cognitive variables) and participant skill level as a moderator.\ud Conclusions\ud Although cognitive strategies influence strength performance, there are knowledge gaps regarding specific types of strength, especially muscular power. Cognitive variables, such as concentration, show promise as possible mediators.

TAPERING FOR MAXIMAL STRENGTH REQUIRES REDUCTIONS IN TRAINING LOAD TO RECOVER FROM THE FATIGUE OF TRAINING. IT IS PERFORMED BEFORE IMPORTANT COMPETITIONS TO ALLOW OPTIMAL PERFORMANCE AT SPECIFIC EVENTS. REDUCTIONS IN TRAINING VOLUME, WITH MAINTAINED OR SMALL INCREASES IN TRAINING INTENSITY

This study investigated the relationship between vertical and horizontal measures in bilateral and unilateral countermovement jump, drop jump and squat jump (SJ), and sprinting speed and muscle architecture of both the vastus lateralis and gastrocnemius. Subjects (n = 17) completed a 30-m sprint test, muscle stiffness test; ultrasound measures, and a jump testing session. Measures of horizontal peak and mean force, in both bilateral and unilateral jumps, tended to have greater relationships to sprint speeds (R = 0.132-0.576) than peak and mean force in the vertical plane (R = 0.008-0.504). Vertical velocity variables also showed some large and very large correlations to sprint speed (R = 0.062-0.635). Unilateral measures of velocity tended to have larger correlations to sprint performance than their bilateral counterparts across all jump types and peak and mean velocity in SJ showed large and very large correlations to sprint speed (bilateral R = 0.227-0.635; unilateral 0.393-0.574). Few large correlations were shown between muscle stiffness measures of muscle architecture and kinetic and kinematic variables in either vertical or horizontal jumps. The present findings suggest that sport scientists and strength and conditioning practitioners concerned with the prognostic value of kinetic variables to functional movements such as sprint speed should also use horizontal jumps in addition to vertical jumps in testing and training.

Whitehead, MT, Scheett, TP, McGuigan, MR, and Martin, AV. A comparison of the effects of short-term plyometric and resistance training on lower-body muscular performance. J Strength Cond Res 32(10): 2743-2749, 2018-The purpose of this study was to compare effects of short-term plyometric and resistance training on lower-body muscular performance. A convenience sample of 30 male subjects aged 21.3 ± 1.8 years (height, 177.3 ± 9.4 cm; mass, 80.0 ± 2.6 kg; body fat, 16.1 ± 1.2%) participated in this investigation. Participants were grouped, and they participated in progressive plyometric (PLT) or resistance training (SRT) twice per week for 8 consecutive weeks or a control (CNT) group that did not participate in any training. Performance tests were administered before and after the training period, and it included measures of high-speed muscular strength (standing long jump, vertical jump), low-speed muscular strength (1-repetition maximal back squat), running speed (20-m sprint), and running agility (505 agility test). Analysis of variance followed by post hoc analyses was performed to determine significant differences between the groups. Significance set at p ≤ 0.05 for all analyses. Significant improvements were observed in the PLT group for standing long jump, vertical jump, and 1-repetition maximal back squat compared with the CNT group and for vertical jump as compared with the SRT group. Significant improvements were observed in the SRT group 1-repetition maximal back squat compared with the CNT group. There were no differences observed between any of the groups for the 20-m sprint or the 505 agility test after the training. These data indicate that 8 weeks of progressive plyometric training results in improvements in parameters of high-speed and low-speed muscular strength with no appreciable change in speed or agility. Additionally, the improvement in low-speed muscular strength observed from 8 weeks of progressive plyometric training was comparable to the results observed from 8 weeks of progressive strength training.

Douglas, J, Pearson, S, Ross, A, and McGuigan, M. Kinetic determinants of reactive strength in highly trained sprint athletes. J Strength Cond Res 32(6): 1562-1570, 2018-The purpose of this study was to determine the braking and propulsive phase kinetic variables underpinning reactive strength in highly trained sprint athletes in comparison with a nonsprint-trained control group. Twelve highly trained sprint athletes and 12 nonsprint-trained participants performed drop jumps (DJs) from 0.25, 0.50, and 0.75 m onto a force plate. One familiarization session was followed by an experimental testing session within the same week. Reactive strength index (RSI), contact time, flight time, and leg stiffness were determined. Kinetic variables including force, power, and impulse were assessed within the braking and propulsive phases. Sprint-trained athletes demonstrated higher RSI vs. nonsprint-trained participants across all drop heights {3.02 vs. 2.02; ES (±90% confidence limit [CL]): 3.11 ± 0.86}. This difference was primarily attained by briefer contact times (0.16 vs. 0.22 seconds; effect size [ES]: -1.49 ± 0.53) with smaller differences observed for flight time (0.50 vs. 0.46 seconds; ES: 0.53 ± 0.58). Leg stiffness, braking and propulsive phase force, and power were higher in sprint-trained athletes. Very large differences were observed in mean braking force (51 vs. 38 N·kg; ES: 2.57 ± 0.73) which was closely associated with contact time (r ±90% CL: -0.93 ± 0.05). Sprint-trained athletes exhibited superior reactive strength than nonsprint-trained participants. This was due to the ability to strike the ground with a stiffer leg spring, an enhanced expression of braking force, and possibly an increased utilization of elastic structures. The DJ kinetic analysis provides additional insight into the determinants of reactive strength which may inform subsequent testing and training.

The purpose of this article was to compare strength, speed, and power characteristics between playing position (forwards and backs) in elite rugby league players. A total of 39 first team players (height, 183.8 ± 5.95 cm; body mass, 100.3 ± 10.7 kg; age, 24 ± 3 years) from a National Rugby League club participated in this study. Testing included 10-, 40-m sprint times, sprint mechanics on an instrumented nonmotorized treadmill, and concentric isokinetic hip and knee extension and flexion. Backs, observed to have significantly (p ≤ 0.05) lighter body mass (effect size [ES] = 0.98), were significantly faster (10-m ES = 1.26; 40-m ES = 1.61) and produced significantly greater relative horizontal force and power (ES = 0.87 and 1.04) compared with forwards. However, no significant differences were found between forwards and backs during relative isokinetic knee extension, knee flexion, relative isokinetic hip extension, flexion, prowler sprints, sprint velocity, contact time, or flight time. The findings demonstrate that backs have similar relative strength in comparison with forwards, but run faster overground and produce significantly greater relative horizontal force and power when sprinting on a nonmotorized instrumented treadmill. Developing force and power in the horizontal direction may be beneficial for improving sprint performance in professional rugby league players.

Over the past 30 years, endurance volumes have increased by >20% among the rowing elite; therefore, informed decisions about the value of weight training over other possible activities in periodized training plans for rowing need to be made. The purpose of this study was to quantify the changes in lower-body strength development after two 14-week phases of intensive resisted on-water rowing, either incorporating weight training or rowing alone. Ten elite women performed 2 resisted rowing (�towing ropes,� e.g., 8 × 3 minutes) plus 6 endurance (e.g., 16�28 km at 70�80% maximum heart rate) and 2 rate-regulated races (e.g., 8,000 m at 24 strokes per minute) on-water each week. After a 4-week washout phase, the 14-week phase was repeated with the addition of 2 weight-training sessions (e.g., 3�4 sets × 6�15 reps). Percent (±SD) and standardized differences in effects (effect size [ES] ± 90% confidence limit) for 5-repetition leg pressing and isometric pulling strength were calculated from data ratio scaled for body mass, log transformed and adjusted for pretest scores. Resisted rowing alone did not increase leg pressing (-1.0 ± 5.3%, p = 0.51) or isometric pulling (5.3 ± 13.4%, p = 0.28) strength. In contrast, after weight training, a moderately greater increase in leg pressing strength was observed (ES = 0.72 ± 0.49, p = 0.03), although differences in isometric pulling strength were unclear (ES = 0.56 ± 1.69, p = 0.52). In conclusion, intensive on-water training including resisted rowing maintained but did not increase lower-body strength. Elite rowers or coaches might consider the incorporation of high-intensity nonfatiguing weight training concurrent to endurance exercise if increases in lower-body strength without changes in body mass are desired.

Knowledge of the relationship between weight room exercises and various rowing performance measures is limited; this information would prove useful for sport-specific assessment of individual needs and exercise prescription. The purpose of this study was to establish strength, power, and muscular endurance exercises for weight room training, which are strong determinants of success in specific performance measures used to assess elite rowers. Nineteen heavyweight elite males determined their repetition maximum (RM) loads for exercises using a Concept 2 DYNO [5, 30, 60 and 120RM leg pressing and seated arm pulling (in Joules)] and free weights [1RM power clean (in kilograms) and 6RM bench pull (in kilograms and watts)]. Rowing performance measures included a 7-stage blood lactate response ergometer test (aerobic condition), time trials (500, 2000, and 5000 m), a peak stroke power test, and a 60-minute distance trial. Pearson correlation moments (r ≥ 0.7) and stepwise multiple linear regression calculations (R ≥ 50%) were used to establish strong common variances between weight room exercises and rowing ergometer performance (p ≤ 0.05). Weight room exercises were strong predictors of 2000-m, 500-m time (in seconds), and peak stroke power performance measures only. Bench pull power (in watts) and 1RM power clean (in kilograms) were the best 2-factor predictors of peak stroke power (R = 73%; standard error of the estimates [SEE] = 59.6 W) and 500 m (R = 70%; SEE = 1.75 seconds); while 5RM leg pressing (in Joules) and either 6RM bench pull (kg) or 60RM seated arm pulling (in Joules) the best predictors of 2000 m (R = 59%; SEE = 6.3 seconds and R = 57%; SEE = 6.4 seconds, respectively). Recommended exercises for weight room training include a 1RM power clean, 6RM bench pull, 5RM leg press, and 60RM seated arm pulling.

The aim of this study was to use the Oslo Sports Trauma Research Center (OSTRC) Overuse Injury Questionnaire to record overuse injuries over a single season for a men's professional basketball team to (a) assess the prevalence and severity of overuse injuries and (b) determine the efficacy of this method in identifying overuse injuries in comparison with the team physiotherapist's detection of these injuries. Thirteen athletes from a men's professional basketball team participated in this study. The self-reported, OSTRC injury questionnaire was used to record overuse conditions of the ankle, knee, and lower back over an entire 24-week season. Standard time-loss injury registration methods were also used to record overuse conditions by the physiotherapist. Overuse injury rates per 1,000 hours of athlete exposure and average weekly prevalence of overuse injuries were calculated using the results of the questionnaire. A total of 183 overuse conditions were identified by the questionnaire, whereas only 28 overuse conditions were identified by the physiotherapist. The team's average weekly prevalence of all overuse conditions was 63% (95% confidence interval [CI]: 60-66), with the highest prevalence of injury affecting the lower back (25.9% [95% CI: 19.7-32.1]). The overuse injury rate per 1,000 hours of athlete exposure was 6.4. The OSTRC overuse injury questionnaire captures many more overuse injuries in basketball than standard time-loss methods. The prevalence of lower back injuries is higher than that previously reported in basketball. This additional method of overuse injury surveillance may more accurately quantify the overuse injury problem in basketball and aid earlier intervention and management of these conditions.

Bridgeman, LA, Gill, ND, Dulson, DK, and McGuigan, MR. The effect of exercise induced muscle damage after a bout of accentuated eccentric load drop jumps and the repeated bout effect. J Strength Cond Res 31(2): 386-394, 2017-Although previous studies have investigated exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) after a bout of unloaded drop jumps (DJs), none have investigated the effects of accentuated eccentric load (AEL) DJs on EIMD. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of 30 and 50 AEL DJs on strength, jump performance, muscle soreness, and blood markers. Eight resistance trained athletes participated in this study. In week 1, baseline countermovement jump (CMJ), squat jump (SJ), concentric and eccentric peak force (PF), creatine kinase, and muscle soreness were assessed. Subjects then completed 30 AEL DJs and baseline measures were retested immediately postintervention, 1, 24, and 48 hours later. Two weeks later, the subjects completed the same protocol with an increase in AEL DJ volume (50). Subjects' SJ height was reduced in week 1 compared with week 3, postintervention, 1, 24, and 48 hours later (ES = -0.34, -0.44, -0.38, and -0.40). Subjects' CMJ height was reduced in week 1 compared with week 3, postintervention, 1, and 24 hours later (ES = -0.37, -0.29, and -0.39). Concentric PF was reduced in week 1 compared with week 3, postintervention and 24 and 48 hours later (ES = -0.02, -0.23, and -0.32). Eccentric PF was reduced in week 1 compared with week 3, postintervention, 24, and 48 hours later (ES = -0.24, -0.16, and -0.50). In this sample, 30 AEL DJs attenuated the effects of EIMD following which 50 AEL DJs completed 2 weeks later.

Bridgeman, LA, McGuigan, MR, Gill, ND, and Dulson, DK. Test-retest reliability of a novel isokinetic squat device with strength-trained athletes. J Strength Cond Res 30(11): 3261-3265, 2016-The aim of this study was to investigate the test-retest reliability of a novel multijoint isokinetic squat device. The subjects in this study were 10 strength-trained athletes. Each subject completed 3 maximal testing sessions to assess peak concentric and eccentric force (N) over a 3-week period using the Exerbotics squat device. Mean differences between eccentric and concentric force across the trials were calculated. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) and coefficients of variation (CVs) for the variables of interest were calculated using an excel reliability spreadsheet. Between trials 1 and 2 an 11.0 and 2.3% increase in mean concentric and eccentric forces, respectively, was reported. Between trials 2 and 3 a 1.35% increase in the mean concentric force production and a 1.4% increase in eccentric force production was reported. The mean concentric peak force CV and ICC across the 3 trials was 10% (7.6-15.4) and 0.95 (0.87-0.98) respectively. However, the mean eccentric peak force CV and ICC across the trials was 7.2% (5.5-11.1) and 0.90 (0.76-0.97), respectively. Based on these findings it is suggested that the Exerbotics squat device shows good test-retest reliability. Therefore practitioners and investigators may consider its use to monitor changes in concentric and eccentric peak force.

Resistance training is an integral component of physical preparation for athletes. A growing body of evidence indicates that eccentric strength training methods induce novel stimuli for neuromuscular adaptations. The purpose of this systematic review was to determine the effects of eccentric training in comparison to concentric-only or traditional (i.e. constrained by concentric strength) resistance training. Searches were performed using the electronic databases MEDLINE via EBSCO, PubMed and SPORTDiscus via EBSCO. Full journal articles investigating the long-term (≥4 weeks) effects of eccentric training in healthy (absence of injury or illness during the 4 weeks preceding the training intervention), adult (17–35 years), human participants were selected for the systematic review. A total of 40 studies conformed to these criteria. Eccentric training elicits greater improvements in muscle strength, although in a largely mode-specific manner. Superior enhancements in power and stretch-shortening cycle (SSC) function have also been reported. Eccentric training is at least as effective as other modalities in increasing muscle cross-sectional area (CSA), while the pattern of hypertrophy appears nuanced and increased CSA may occur longitudinally within muscle (i.e. the addition of sarcomeres in series). There appears to be a preferential increase in the size of type II muscle fibres and the potential to exert a unique effect upon fibre type transitions. Qualitative and quantitative changes in tendon tissue that may be related to the magnitude of strain imposed have also been reported with eccentric training. Eccentric training is a potent stimulus for enhancements in muscle mechanical function, and muscle-tendon unit (MTU) morphological and architectural adaptations. The inclusion of eccentric loads not constrained by concentric strength appears to be superior to traditional resistance training in improving variables associated with strength, power and speed performance.

The purpose of this research was (a) to examine the performance changes that occur in elite female softball players during 20 weeks of softball training (that included 14 weeks of periodized resistance training [RT]) and (b) to examine the relationship between percent change (%change) in muscle architecture variables and %change in strength, speed, and change of direction performance. Ten female softball players (age = 18.1 ± 1.6 years, height = 166.5 ± 8.9 cm, weight = 72.4 ± 10.8 kg) from a state Australian Institute of Sport softball team were tested for maximal lower-body strength using a 3 repetition maximum for a predicted 1 repetition maximum (1RM) and peak force, peak velocity (PV), and peak power (PP) were measured during jump squats (JS) unloaded and loaded. In addition, the first base (1B) and the second base (2B) sprint performance, change of direction (505) on dominant (D) and nondominant (ND) sides, aerobic capacity, and muscle architecture characteristics of vastus lateralis (VL) including muscle thickness (MT), fascicle length (FL), and pennation angle (θp) were examined. The testing sessions occurred pre, mid, and post training (total 20 week pre- and in-season training period). Changes over time were analyzed by repeated-measures analysis of variance. The relationship between %change in muscle architecture variables and strength, speed, and change of direction variables from pre to post were assessed by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient. Significant improvements in PV and PP occurred at all JS loads pre- to mid-testing and pre- to post-testing. Significant increases occurred pre-post in absolute 1RM, relative 1RM, 505 ND, and 2B sprint. The strongest relationships were found between %change in VL MT and 1B sprint (r = -0.80, p = 0.06), %change in VL FL and 2B sprint (r = -0.835, p = 0.02), and %change in relative 1RM and 505 D (r = -0.70, p = 0.04). In conclusion, gains in strength, power, and performance can occur during the season in elite softball players who are also engaged in a periodized RT program. Furthermore, changes in performance measures are associated with changes in muscle architecture.

The use of strength training designed to increase underlying strength and power qualities in elite athletes in an attempt to improve athletic performance is commonplace. Although the extent to which strength and power are important to sports performance may vary depending on the activity, the associations between these qualities and performance have been well documented in the literature. The purpose of this review is to provide a brief overview of strength training research to determine if it really helps improve athletic performance. While there is a need for more research with elite athletes to investigate the relationship between strength training and athletic performance, there is sufficient evidence for strength training programs to continue to be an integral part of athletic preparation in team sports.

The purpose of this study was to compare the internal load responses (session rating of perceived exertion [RPE] and salivary cortisol) between simulated and official matches (SM and OM). Ten professional basketball players participated in 2 OMs and 2 SMs during the competition season. Subjects provided saliva samples 30 minutes before the prematch warm-up (PRE) and 10 minutes after the end of the match. Session RPE (CR-10 scale) was assessed 30 minutes after each match. The results from the 2-way analysis of variance showed significant differences for post-OM salivary cortisol as compared with pre-OM values (p < 0.05). No changes were observed for cortisol during the SM. Before the OM, a significant difference in salivary cortisol was observed as compared with pre-SM values (p < 0.05). Moreover, the OM session RPE was significantly greater than that of SM. There was a significant correlation between session RPE and cortisol changes (r = 0.75). In summary, the results of this study showed a greater magnitude of cortisol and session RPE responses after OM as compared with that after SM confirming the hypothesis that a real competition generates a greater stress response than a simulated condition does. The anticipatory effect was also observed in the OM. In addition, the results indicate that session RPE seems to be a viable tool in monitoring internal loads, and the results are useful in providing a better understanding of internal loads imposed by basketball training and competitions. The precise monitoring of these responses might help the coaches to plan appropriate loads maximizing recovery and performance.

This study compared the effectiveness of ratio and allometric scaling for normalizing speed, power, and strength in elite male rugby union players. Thirty rugby players (body mass [BM] 107.1 ± 10.1 kg, body height [BH] 187.8 ± 7.1 cm) were assessed for sprinting speed, peak power during countermovement jumps and squat jumps, and horizontal jumping distance. One-repetition maximum strength was assessed during a bench press, chin-up, and back squat. Performance was normalized using ratio and allometric scaling (Y/Xb), where Y is the performance, X, the body size variable (i.e., BM or BH), and b is the power exponent. An exponent of 1.0 was used during ratio scaling. Allometric scaling was applied using proposed exponents and derived exponents for each data set. The BM and BH variables were significantly related, or close to, performance during the speed, power and/or strength tests (p < 0.001-0.066). Ratio scaling and allometric scaling using proposed exponents were effective in normalizing performance (i.e., no significant correlations) for some of these tests. Allometric scaling with derived exponents normalized performance across all the tests undertaken, thereby removing the confounding effects of BM and BH. In terms of practical applications, allometric scaling with derived exponents may be used to normalize performance between larger rugby forwards and smaller rugby backs, and could provide additional information on rugby players of similar body size. Ratio scaling may provide the best predictive measure of performance (i.e., strongest correlations).

In the quest to maximize average propulsive stroke impulses over 2000-m racing, testing and training of various strength parameters have been incorporated into the physical conditioning plans of rowers. Thus, the purpose of this review was 2-fold: to identify strength tests that were reliable and valid correlates (predictors) of rowing performance; and, to establish the benefits gained when strength training was integrated into the physical preparation plans of rowers. The reliability of maximal strength and power tests involving leg extension (e.g. leg pressing) and arm pulling (e.g. prone bench pull) was high (intra-class correlations 0.82-0.99), revealing that elite rowers were significantly stronger than their less competitive peers. The greater strength of elite rowers was in part attributed to the correlation between strength and greater lean body mass (r = 0.57-0.63). Dynamic lower body strength tests that determined the maximal external load for a one-repetition maximum (1RM) leg press (kg), isokinetic leg extension peak force (N) or leg press peak power (W) proved to be moderately to strongly associated with 2000-m ergometer times (r = -0.54 to -0.68; p 0.05). Repetition tests that assess muscular or strength endurance by quantifying the number of repetitions accrued at a fixed percentage of the strength maximum (e.g. 50-70% 1RM leg press) or set absolute load (e.g. 40 kg prone bench pulls) were less reliable and more time consuming when compared with briefer maximal strength tests. Only leg press repetition tests were correlated with 2000-m ergometer times (e.g. r = -0.67; p 0.05). However, these tests differentiate training experience and muscle morphology, in that those individuals with greater training experience and/or proportions of slow twitch fibres performed more repetitions. Muscle balance ratios derived from strength data (e.g. hamstring-quadriceps ratio45% or knee extensor-elbow flexor ratio around 4.2 ± 0.22 to 1) appeared useful in the pathological assessment of low back pain or rib injury history associated with rowing. While strength partially explained variances in 2000-m ergometer performance, concurrent endurance training may be counterproductive to strength development over the shorter term (i.e.12 weeks). Therefore, prioritization of strength training within the sequence of training units should be considered, particularly over the non-competition phase (e.g. 2-6 sets × 4-12 repetitions, three sessions a week). Maximal strength was sustained when infrequent (e.g. one or two sessions a week) but intense (e.g. 73-79% of maximum) strength training units were scheduled; however, it was unclear whether training adaptations should emphasize maximal strength, endurance or power in order to enhance performance during the competition phase. Additionally, specific on-water strength training practices such as towing ropes had not been reported. Further research should examine the on-water benefits associated with various strength training protocols, in the context of the training phase, weight division, experience and level of rower, if limitations to the reliability and precision of performance data (e.g. 2000-m time or rank) can be controlled. In conclusion, while positive ergometer time-trial benefits of clinical and practical significance were reported with strength training, a lack of statistical significance was noted, primarily due to an absence of quality long-term controlled experimental research designs.