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BackgroundRecently several studies in the psychological and social field have investigated the social function of gift exchange as a useful way for the consolidation of interpersonal and social relationships and the implementation of prosocial behaviors. Specifically, the present research wanted to explore if gift exchange, increased emotional sharing, gratitude and interpersonal cooperation, leading to an improvement in cognitive and behavioral performance. In this regard, neural connectivity and cognitive performance of 14 pairs of friends were recorded during the development of a joint attention task that involved a gift exchange at the beginning or halfway through the task. The moment of gift exchange was randomized within the pairs: for seven couples, it happened at task beginning, for the remaining seven later. Individuals’ simultaneous brain activity was recorded through the use of two electroencephalograms (EEG) systems that were used in hyperscanning.ResultsThe results showed that after gift exchange there was an improvement in behavioral performance in terms of accuracy. For what concerns EEG, instead, an increase of delta and theta activation was observed in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) when gift exchange occurred at the beginning of the task. Furthermore, an increase in neural connectivity for delta and theta bands was observed.ConclusionThe present research provides a significant contribution to the exploration of the factors contributing to the strengthening of social bonds, increasing cooperation, gratitude and prosocial behavior.

It is known that the longer an information has been memorized, the stronger is its memory trace, and that emotionally-valenced information is more solid than neutral one. We investigated whether the emotional content of recent information might enhance its memory, making it as familiar as information known for a long time. We compared ERPs alternately recorded in response to old and solid information from long term memory (i.e., faces of popular movie stars), to recently acquired emotional information (faces of fictional characters), and to completely new information (faces of previously unknown people). Initially participants familiarized with the fictional police dossiers of 10 victims of dramatic deaths (recent faces), twice a day for seven days before EEG recordings. Recent faces were compared with faces of movie stars and unknown faces in an old/new recognition task. N200 and FN400 responses were affected by face familiarity (with no difference between old and recent faces), while parietal late positivity (LP) was sensitive to temporal recency, being it greater to old than recent faces. Interestingly, LP amplitude was similar for old and recent own-sex faces (victims) that were therefore equally memorable. It is shown that emotional memory can overcome temporal recency thus improving memory recall.

Recently, different psychological studies have been interested in identifying the factors that regulate the development and maintenance of long-lasting interpersonal and social relationships. Specifically, the present research explored the link between gift exchange, gratitude and cognitive effects. The behavioral performance and neural activity of 32 participants were recorded during a cooperative game to be played before and after gift exchange. Specifically, participants had to perform the task coupled with a dear friend. Half of the couples were asked to exchange a gift before the task performance; the other half was asked to exchange a gift halfway through the task performance. For hemodynamic brain responses, functional near-infrared spectroscopy was used. Results showed that an increase in cognitive performance occurred after the exchange of gifts, with improved accuracy and lower response times in task performance. Regarding hemodynamic responses, an increase in oxygenated hemoglobin was detected, especially in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex following the gift exchange. Furthermore, it was observed that gift exchange before the beginning of the task increased the performance level. The present study provides a significant contribution to the identification of those factors that enable the increased cognitive performance based on cooperative relationships.

Recent research in social neuroscience has shown how prosocial behavior can increase perceived self-efficacy, perception of cognitive abilitites and social interactions. The present research explored the effect of prosocial behavior, that is giving a gift during an interpersonal exchange, measuring the hyperscanning among two brains. The experiment aimed to analyze the behavioral performance and the brain-to-brain prefrontal neural activity of 16 dyads during a joint action consisting in a cooperative game, which took place in a laboratory setting controlled by an experimenter, to play before and after a gift exchange. Two different types of gift exchange were compared: experiential and material. Functional Near Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) was applied to record brain activity. Inter-brain connectivity was calculated before and after the gift exchange. In behavioral data, a behavioral performance increase was observed after gift exchange, with accuracy improvement and response times decrease. Regarding intra-brain analyses, an increase in oxygenated hemoglobin was detected, especially in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) in both donor and receiver; and in the dorsal part of the premotor cortex (DPMC) in the donor. Moreover, as regards the gift type, greater activation in the DPLFC emerged in both the donor and the receiver after receiving an experiential gift. Finally, the results of the inter-brain connectivity analysis showed that after gift exchange, the donor and receiver brain activity was more synchronized in the DPMC and Frontal Eye Fields (FEF) areas. The present study provides a contribution to the identification of inter-brain functional connectivity when prosocial behaviors are played out.

Previous research on Schizophrenia (S) revealed anomalies in brain responsiveness during emotion processing, as shown by neuroimaging and electroencephalography (EEG) measures. Nonetheless preserved capacities to explicitly evaluate the emotional significance of affective stimuli in term of valence have been found. The present study applied functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (fNIRS) and EEG to explore the spatial and temporal expressions of emotion processing in the brain before (T0) and after (T2) an emotional Neurofeedback (NF) training of patients, assigned to the control or the experimental group. Explicit measures revealed correct identifications of stimuli emotional valence before (T0) and after (T2) the treatment, while implicit measures (EEG and fNIRS) showed a modulation and increased competencies only after the NF (T2), with more balanced prefrontal activity.

Creativity, meant as the ability to produce novel, original and suitable ideas, has received increased attention by research in the last years, especially from neuroaesthetics and social neuroscience. Besides the research conducted on the neural correlates of such capacities, previous work tried to answer the question of whether it is possible to enhance creativity through cognitive and neural stimulation. In particular, transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) has been applied to increase neuronal excitability in those areas related to creativity. However, being a complex construct that applies to a huge variety of situations, available results are often confusing and inconsistent. Thus, in the present critical review, after selecting original research articles investigating creativity with tDCS, results will be reviewed and framed according to the different effects of tDCS and its underlying mechanisms, which can be defined as follows: the promotion of self-focused attention; the disruption of inhibiting mechanisms; the enhancement of creative thinking; the promotion of artistic enactment. Finally, a theoretical perspective, the creative on/off model, will be provided to integrate the reported evidence with respect to both anatomical and functional issues and propose a cognitive explanation of the emergence of creative thinking.

Functional connectivity during cooperative actions is an important topic in social neuroscience that has yet to be answered. Here, we examined the effects of administration of (fictitious) negative social feedback in relation to cooperative capabilities. Cognitive performance and neural activation underlying the execution of joint actions was recorded with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) on prefrontal regions during a task where pairs of participants received negative feedback after their joint action. Performance (error rates (ERs) and response times (RTs)) and intra- and inter-brain connectivity indices were computed, along with the ConIndex (inter-brain/intra-brain connectivity). Finally, correlational measures were considered to assess the relation between these different measures. Results showed that the negative feedback was able to modulate participants’ responses for both behavioral and neural components. Cognitive performance was decreased after the feedback. Moreover, decreased inter-brain connectivity and increased intra-brain connectivity was induced by the feedback, whereas the cooperative task pre-feedback condition was able to increase the brain-to-brain coupling, mainly localized within the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). Finally, the presence of significant correlations between RTs and inter-brain connectivity revealed that ineffective joint action produces the worst cognitive performance and a more ‘individual strategy’ for brain activity, limiting the inter-brain connectivity. The present study provides a significant contribution to the identification of patterns of intra- and inter-brain functional connectivity when negative social reinforcement is provided in relation to cooperative actions.

Background Social behavior and interactions pervasively shape and influence our lives and relationships. Competition, in particular, has become a core topic in social neuroscience since it stresses the relevance and salience of social comparison processes between the inter-agents that are involved in a common task. The majority of studies, however, investigated such kind of social interaction via one-person individual paradigms, thus not taking into account relevant information concerning interdependent participants’ behavioral and neural responses. In the present study, dyads of volunteers participated in a hyperscanning paradigm and competed in a computerized attention task while their electrophysiological (EEG) activity and performance were monitored and recorded. Behavioral data and inter-brain coupling measures based on EEG frequency data were then computed and compared across different experimental conditions: a control condition (individual task, t0), a first competitive condition (pre-feedback condition, t1), and a second competitive condition following a positive reinforcing feedback (post-feedback condition, t2). Results Results showed that during competitive tasks participants’ performance was improved with respect to control condition (reduced response times and error rates), with a further specific improvement after receiving a reinforcing feedback. Concurrently, we observed a reduction of inter-brain functional connectivity (primarily involving bilateral prefrontal areas) for slower EEG frequency bands (delta and theta). Finally, correlation analyses highlighted a significant association between cognitive performance and inter-brain connectivity measures. Conclusions The present results may help identifying specific patterns of behavioral and inter-brain coupling measures associated to competition and processing of social reinforcements.

The diagnosis of Learning Disabilities (LD) is frequently subject to cognitive biases. In Italy, minimal diagnostic standards have been identified during a national Consensus Conference (2010). However, specialists use different protocols to assess reading and cognitive abilities. Thus, we propose to support LDs diagnosis with Artificial Neural Networks (ANN). Clinical results from 203 reports were input to investigate which ones can predict LD diagnosis. In addition, correlations among LDs were explored. Preliminary results show that ANNs can be useful to support a clinical diagnosis of LDs with an 81.93% average accuracy, and, under certain conditions, with a 99% certainty. Additionally, the 10 most meaningful tests for each LD have been identified and significant correlations between dyscalculia and dyslexia were found.

Brain-to-brain coupling during cooperation is a core question of study on social interactions. The aim of the present study was to investigate the neural basis of interbrain cooperation and the cognitive performance underlying the execution of jointactions by using EEG coherence measures. Synchronicity of the cognitive variables (response times, RTs, and error rates, ERs) in response to an attentional task, intersubjective coherence analysis on EEG frequency bands, and correlational measures between cognitive and brain activity were considered during some steps of progressive reinforcing conditions. Fifteen couples of subjects performed an attentional task in eight temporal steps, stressing their good performance at the end of each step. The induced feedback affected both the cognitive performance and brain-to-brain coupling by increasing behavioral and brain synchronization when a positive feedback was furnished to the participants for their performance. Secondly, about the cortical contribution, high coherence effect was mainly observed when a positive reinforce was produced, but only for some low frequency bands within the prefrontal left area, compared to the right one. Thus, also a left lateralization effect was reportable. Finally, the cognitive and EEG coherence measures were shown to be correlated, with a significant similar trend anchored to the progressive feedback.

Cooperation behavior is a core question of study on social neuroscience. In the present study, inter-brain functional connectivity and cognitive performance were considered during joint which was failing. The cognitive performance and the EEG (brain oscillations from delta to beta) underlying the execution of joint-actions were recorded when dyads of participants executed synchronicity game and received reinforcing negative feedbacks A pre-feedback condition (cooperation) and a control condition (individual task, T0) were provided as well as a check for possible learning effect (time series analysis). Finally, correlation analysis was considered to assess the relation between behavioral and physiological levels. Results showed that the external feedback was able to modulate participants' responses in both behavioral and neural components with increased RTs and ERs after the negative reinforcement. Similarly, a reduced inter-brain connectivity was found, mainly localized within the superior frontal regions, and for low-frequency bands (delta and theta). In contrast pre-feedback condition showed the best performance in terms of both behavioral and brain-to-brain coupling activity. Moreover, the presence of significant correlations between RTs and inter-brain connectivity revealed that the failing cooperation induces significant negative effects on the cognitive and brain strategy in comparison with cooperative (pre-feedback) and individual (control) condition. The present study provides significant contribution to the identification of patterns of cognitive behavior and functional connectivity when social reinforcement is provided within dyads of participants by using a hyperscanning approach.

The present research explored the effect of cross-modal integration of emotional cues (auditory and visual (AV)) compared with only visual (V) emotional cues in observing interspecies interactions. The brain activity was monitored when subjects processed AV and V situations, which represented an emotional (positive or negative), interspecies (human–animal) interaction. Congruence (emotionally congruous or incongruous visual and auditory patterns) was also modulated. electroencephalography brain oscillations (from delta to beta) were analyzed and the cortical source localization (by standardized Low Resolution Brain Electromagnetic Tomography) was applied to the data. Frequency band (mainly low-frequency delta and theta) showed a significant brain activity increasing in response to negative compared to positive interactions within the right hemisphere. Moreover, differences were found based on stimulation type, with an increased effect for AV compared with V. Finally, delta band supported a lateralized right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) activity in response to negative and incongruous interspecies interactions, mainly for AV. The contribution of cross-modality, congruence (incongruous patterns), and lateralization (right DLPFC) in response to interspecies emotional interactions was discussed at light of a “negative lateralized effect.”

It is known that the longer an information has been memorized, the stronger is its memory trace. At the same time it is known that the emotionally-valenced information has a stronger memory trace than neutral one. Interactive effects between these factors are largely unknown. In this study electrical neuroimaging signals were recorded in healthy controls to explore the neural mechanism of memory for faces of different emotional valence, sex, learning context and temporal recency. In a study phase participants familiarized with the fictional police dossier of 10 victims of dramatic deaths including homicide or earthquake (depicted as attractive and nice persons of about 45 years), twice a day for seven days before EEG recordings. Hundreds of famous movie stars (overlearned), victims (recent) and new faces were presented in an old/new recognition task. ERP responses showed a modulation of anterior N2 and FN400 as a function of face familiarity (with no differences between overlearned and recent faces), while parietal late positivity was sensitive to engram temporal recency (it was much larger to overlearned than recent faces, paralleling behavioral data). However, LP amplitude did not differ to overlearned vs. recent same-sex faces, showing how emotional memory can enhance faces remembering. A late frontal negativity revealed sensitive to source memory.

Introduction The neural activity in response to ineffective joint actions was explored in the present study. Subjects involved in a cooperative but frustrating task (poor performance as manipulated by an external feedback) were required to cooperate (T1) during an attentional task in a way to synchronize their responses and obtain better outcomes. Methods We manipulated their strategies by providing false feedbacks (T2) signaling the incapacity to create a synergy, which was reinforced by a general negative evaluation halfway through the game. A control condition was provided (no cooperation required, T0) as well as a check for possible learning effect (time series analysis). The effects of the feedback in modulating subjects' behavioral performance and electrocortical activity were explored by means of brain oscillations (delta, theta, alpha, beta) and autonomic activity (heart rate, HR; skin conductance activity, SCR). Results Results showed a specific pattern of behavioral, neural, and peripheral responses after the social feedback. In fact, within this condition, worse behavioral outcomes emerged, with longer response times with respect to the prefeedback one. In parallel, a specific right‐lateralized effect was observed over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), with increased delta and theta power compared to the previous condition. Moreover, increased SCR was observed with respect to the first part. Conclusions Two interpretations are put forward to explain the present findings: 1) the contribution of negative emotions in response to failing interactions or 2) a motivational disengagement toward goal‐oriented cooperation elicited by frustrating evaluations.

Introduction The present study explored the role of resting state and personality component (BIS/BAS measure) on prefrontal cortical responsiveness to emotional cues. Indeed, we supposed that lateralized resting activity (right vs. left) and approach (BAS) versus avoidance (BIS) attitude may explain the successive emotional processing within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) based on the stimulus valence (positive and negative emotional cues). Methods Hemodynamic (functional near‐infrared spectroscopy, fNIRS) and electroencephalographic (EEG) measures were considered. The resting and experimental brain activity were registered when subjects (N = 21) viewed emotional positive versus negative stimuli (International Affective Picture System, IAPS). LIR eeg and LIR nirs (lateralized Index Response) during resting state, and LI eeg and LI nirs during emotional processing were acquired. Results A set of regression analyses was applied to the multiple measures. The predictive effect of resting activity and approach/avoidance dichotomy were elucidated. Indeed, more left/right resting activity (for both LIR eeg and LIR nirs) predicted the successive more brain left/right response (LI eeg and LI nirs) to emotional cues. Second, significant effects were revealed as a function of valence (increased right response to negative stimuli; increased left response to positive stimuli) during emotion processing. Third, higher BAS values explained an increased left cortical activity in resting state and in experimental condition for positive cues. In contrast, higher BIS values marked an increased right activity in resting state and in experimental condition in response to negative cues. Conclusion The significance of trait component for both resting and emotional cue processing was discussed at light of the present results.

Background Cooperation and competition were compared in the present study. Brain correlates (electroencephalography, EEG frequency band, delta, theta, alpha, and beta) and hemodynamic measure of functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS, O2Hb) were acquired during a joined cooperative (Experiment 1) or competitive (Experiment 2) task. Subjects were required to match each other’s cognitive performance (cooperation) or to make better than others (competition) in terms of accuracy (error rate, ER) and response time (RT). In addition, a personality trait measure (behavioral activation system, BAS) was used to distinguish subjects based on their rewarding attitude. Self-perception of social ranking and real performance were considered in response to subjects’ performance (that was artificially manipulated to show an increasing or decreasing profile during the task). Results An increased left prefrontal cortical (PFC) responsiveness was found for subjects who had higher BAS rating in case of both cooperation and competition conditions. Moreover, subjects with higher BAS ratings showed greater frontal left activity during the cooperative task. These subjects also concomitantly perceived an increasing in social ranking and improved their performance. Conclusions Present results demonstrated that some trait components (BAS) and cooperative condition induce a positive self-representation in term of ranking and a best way to perform the task, as underlined by self-perception and cognitive outcomes. Indeed the higher BAS trait proved to be related with the representation of higher social ranking and with the perception of improved cognitive outcomes, with also a significant increased left PFC activity in cooperative contexts.

In the present study the social ranking perception in competition was explored. Brain response (alpha band oscillations, EEG; hemodynamic activity, O2Hb) as well as self-perception of social ranking, cognitive performance, and personality trait (Behavioral Activation System, BAS) were considered during a competitive joint-action. Subjects were required to develop a strategy to obtain a better outcome than a competitor (C) (in term of error rate, ER, and response time, RT). A pre-feedback (without a specific feedback on the performance) and a post-feedback condition (which reinforced the improved performance) was provided. It was found that higher BAS participants responded in greater measure to perceived higher cognitive performance (post-feedback condition), with increased prefrontal left activity, perception of higher ranking and a better real performance (reduced RTs). These results were explained in term of increased sense of self-efficacy and social position, probably based on higher-BAS sensitivity to reinforcing condition. In addition, the hemispheric effect in favor of the left side characterized the competitive behavior, showing an imbalance for high-BAS in comparison to low-BAS in the case of a rewarding (post-feedback) context. Therefore, the present results confirmed the significance of BAS in modulating brain responsiveness, self-perceived social position and real performance during an inter-personal competitive action which is considered highly relevant for social status.

Emotional empathy is crucial to understand how we respond to interpersonal positive or negative situations. In the present research, we aim at identifying the neural networks and the autonomic responsiveness underlying the human ability to perceive and empathize with others' emotions when positive (cooperative) or negative (uncooperative) interactions are observed. A multimethodological approach was adopted to elucidate the reciprocal interplay of autonomic (peripheral) and central (cortical) activities in empathic behavior. Electroencephalography (EEG, frequency band analysis) and hemodynamic (functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, fNIRS) activity were all recorded simultaneously with systemic skin conductance response (SCR) and heart rate (HR) measurements as potential biological markers of emotional empathy. Subjects were required to empathize in interpersonal interactions. As shown by fNIRS/EEG measures, negative situations elicited increased brain responses within the right prefrontal cortex (PFC), whereas positive situations elicited greater responses within the left PFC. Therefore, a relevant lateralization effect was induced by the specific valence (mainly for negative conditions) of the emotional interactions. Also, SCR was modulated by positive/negative conditions. Finally, EEG activity (mainly low-frequency theta and delta bands) intrinsically correlated with the cortical hemodynamic responsiveness, and they both predicted autonomic activity. The integrated central and autonomic measures better elucidated the significance of empathic behavior in interpersonal interactions.

The brain activity, considered in its hemodynamic (optical imaging: functional Near-Infrared Spectroscopy, fNIRS) and electrophysiological components (event-related potentials, ERPs, N200) was monitored when subjects observed (visual stimulation, V) or observed and heard (visual + auditory stimulation, VU) situations which represented inter-species (human-animal) interactions, with an emotional positive (cooperative) or negative (uncooperative) content. In addition, the cortical lateralization effect (more left or right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, DLPFC) was explored. Both ERP and fNIRS showed significant effects due to emotional interactions which were discussed at light of cross-modal integration effects. The significance of inter-species effect for the emotional behavior was considered. In addition, hemodynamic and EEG consonant results and their value as integrated measures were discussed at light of valence effect.

The present study explored cortical correlates of gesture execution and observation in peripersonal space, using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Moreover, a direct comparison was realized between resting state condition and execution/observation. Meaningful gestures produced in the presence (transitive action) or in the absence (intransitive action) of the object were considered in a real context (situated representation of gestures). Subjects were required to execute or observe transitive versus intransitive gestures during fNIRS registration. Gesture execution was related to higher brain activity (increased oxygenated hemoglobin levels) with respect to observation in motor areas (premotor cortex, PMC; supplementary motor cortex, SM1). In contrast, the posterior parietal cortex was similarly activated in case of both execution and observation task. Moreover, both tasks showed increased brain activity within these areas compared to resting state. Finally, it was shown that action execution and observation of transitive gestures was supported by similar parietal posterior areas. These findings support the hypothesis of a partial common network for observation and execution of gestures within peripersonal space, mainly in transitive condition.

This study explored the effect of lateralized left-right resting brain activity on prefrontal cortical responsiveness to emotional cues and on the explicit appraisal (stimulus evaluation) of emotions based on their valence. Indeed subjective responses to different emotional stimuli should be predicted by brain resting activity and should be lateralized and valence-related (positive vs negative valence). A hemodynamic measure was considered (functional near-infrared spectroscopy). Indeed hemodynamic resting activity and brain response to emotional cues were registered when subjects (N = 19) viewed emotional positive vs negative stimuli (IAPS). Lateralized index response during resting state, LI (lateralized index) during emotional processing and self-assessment manikin rating were considered. Regression analysis showed the significant predictive effect of resting activity (more left or right lateralized) on both brain response and appraisal of emotional cues based on stimuli valence. Moreover, significant effects were found as a function of valence (more right response to negative stimuli; more left response to positive stimuli) during emotion processing. Therefore, resting state may be considered a predictive marker of the successive cortical responsiveness to emotions. The significance of resting condition for emotional behavior was discussed.

Due to its fast temporal evolution and its representation and integration among complex and widespread neural networks, the emotion perception process should preferably be examined by means of multimethodological approach. Indeed the indubitable vantage of acquiring both the autonomic (arousal-related) and the central (cortical-related) activities stands in the possibility to better elucidate the reciprocal interplay of the two compartments. In the present study EEG (frequency band analysis), systemic SCR and heart rate (HR) were all recorded simultaneously with hemodynamic (NIRS, Near-Infrared Spectroscopy) measurements as potential biological markers of emotions, related to both central and peripheral systems. These multiple measures were then related to the self-report correlates, that is the subjective appraisal in term of valence (positive vs. negative) and arousal (high vs. low) by using SAM rating. Twenty subjects were submitted to emotional cues processing (IAPS) when fNIRS, frequency bands (alpha, beta, delta, theta), SCR and HR were recorded. As shown by O2Hb increasing within the right hemisphere, the contribution of prefrontal cortex was elucidated, by pointing out a relevant lateralization effect (more right-PFC activity) induced by the specific valence (negative) of the emotional patterns. Secondly, EEG activity (mainly low-frequency theta and delta bands) was intrinsically associated with the cortical hemodynamic responsiveness to the negative emotional patterns, within the right side. Finally SCR increased mainly in response to negative patterns, and the autonomic behavior was related to explicit (SAM) and cortical (NIRS; EEG) activity. The intrinsic relationships between these three different levels are discussed.

The present research was intended to verify the relationship between traditional clinical measures (Coma Near Coma and Disability Rating Scales; CNC, DRS) to assess residual cognitive abilities in Disturb Of Consciousness (DOC) and N400 ERP index, in response to a semantic associative task. The sample was made up of 18 patients, sub-divided into two subgroups according to the clinical scorings: Vegetative State (VS) and Minimally Conscious State (MCS). They were submitted to a semantic associative auditory task that included 60 congruous (related final words) or incongruous (unrelated final words) word sequences. Results showed that all patients exhibited a N400 deflection over the fronto-central areas similar to that of healthy subjects. However this deflection was delayed in latency for incongruous word sequences. This effect was greater for VS in comparison with MCS patients, and significantly correlated with the behavioral scales, so that an increased impairment was related to a longer latency for incongruous conditions. The presence of N400 index was a strong evidence of preserved higher cognitive functions in DOC patients. However, N400 was differently modulated for VS and MCS patients. Electrophysiological measures could prevent misdiagnosis and lead to correctly classify different consciousness profiles.

The activation of the prefrontal cortex during affective picture processing has been extensively studied in its temporal (by EEG), spatial (by neuroimaging studies), and peripheral (by autonomic system measures) features, even if little is known about the relation between neural measures, and between cortical and psychophysiological ones. Nonetheless, emotions and their multilevel processing need to be explored by means of a multi-method approach. The aim of the present study was to examine emotional processing in healthy adults, instructed to look at affective (positive and negative) IAPS pictures during simultaneous hemodynamic (near-infrared spectroscopy, fNIRS), EEG and autonomic activity recording. Twenty subjects participated in the experiment. Stimuli were presented for 6 s in a randomized order, with 12 s inter-stimulus interval. Our main results indicated a differential involvement of prefrontal areas (dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, DLPFC) according to the valence of the stimulus, and a relevant lateralization effect, with negative pictures inducing increased oxygenated hemoglobin (O 2 Hb) and increased theta and delta activity (frequency band analysis) in the right hemisphere. Also, an increased systemic skin conductance response (SCR) emerged. Finally, an intrinsic relation was found and discussed between these three different levels.

Objective Because of its sudden temporal evolution and representation among different levels and complex neural networks, emotion processing should be examined by means of a multi-method approach. The possibility to acquire autonomic (arousal-related) and central (cortical-related) activities allows to better elucidate the reciprocal interplay of the two compartments. Methods 20 subjects were submitted to emotional stimuli while functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), frequency bands (EEG) and skin conductance response (SCR) were simultaneously recorded as biological markers of emotions. Subjective measures were also considered (Self-Assessment Manikin; SAM). Results As shown by oxyhemoglobin (O2Hb) increasing within the right hemisphere, the contribution of the prefrontal cortex was elucidated, by pointing out a right-lateralized effect induced by the negative valence of the stimuli. Moreover EEG activity was associated with the cortical hemodynamic responsiveness to negative emotional patterns, within the right side. SCR increased in response to negative patterns and was related to explicit (SAM) and cortical (fNIRS; EEG) measures. Conclusions Cortical, autonomic and subjective measures were intrinsically associated. Specifically, negative valence was more relevant to process emotional cue in relation to the hemispheric lateralization. Key message Results suggest the importance of central and peripheral measures to explore subjects’ response to emotions.

Objective Our relationships are characterized by interactions with other humans, but also with animal companions. Such interactions are mediated by empathic competencies which, however, conventionally refers to emotional concerns for another person. Research revealed that human–animal relationships provide opportunities to increase empathy, but the presence of animal-directed empathy and its neural correlates have still to be explored. The present study aimed to investigate common and specific neural correlates while viewing intra and interspecies interactions, with particular attention to their valence, and to personality components. Methods Participants were submitted to positive, negative and neutral pictures while hemodynamic (NIRS), electrocortical (EEG) and autonomic measures (heart rate, HR; electrodermal activity, EDA) were simultaneously recorded. Results Data showed the presence of common patterns of activation for both interactions (human- and animal-directed), suggesting they are not mutually exclusive, but differentially predominant. Anyway the presence of some differences also emerged, suggesting the way we process different interactions may also be specific. Conclusions Results suggest that empathy is not a response we save for our conspecific, but can also be extended to animals. Key message The presence of homologous but also partially differentiated channels for the development of empathic competencies through types of interactions was underlined.

The capacity to deceive others is a complex mental skill that requires the ability to suppress truthful information. The polygraph is widely used in countries such as the USA to detect deception. However, little is known about the effects of emotional processes (such as the fear of being found guilty despite being innocent) on the physiological responses that are used to detect lies. The aim of this study was to investigate the time course and neural correlates of untruthful behavior by analyzing electrocortical indexes in response to visually presented neutral and affective questions. Affective questions included sexual, shameful or disgusting topics. A total of 296 questions that were inherently true or false were presented to 25 subjects while ERPs were recorded from 128 scalp sites. Subjects were asked to lie on half of the questions and to answer truthfully on the remaining half. Behavioral and ERP responses indicated an increased need for executive control functions, namely working memory, inhibition and task switching processes, during deceptive responses. Deceptive responses also elicited a more negative N400 over the prefrontal areas and a smaller late positivity (LP 550-750 ms) over the prefrontal and frontal areas. However, a reduction in LP amplitude was also elicited by truthful affective responses. The failure to observe a difference in LP responses across conditions likely results from emotional interference. A swLORETA inverse solution was computed on the N400 amplitude (300-400 ms) for the dishonest - honest contrast. These results showed the activation of the superior, medial, middle and inferior frontal gyri (BA9, 11, 47) and the anterior cingulate cortex during deceptive responses. Our results conclude that the N400 amplitude is a reliable neural marker of deception.