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Background Countries with strong vaccination programmes, including the Republic of Korea, have experienced changes in the epidemiology of Japanese encephalitis (JE), with an increase in cases seen among adults. However, the reasons for this increase are not clearly understood. This study describes the change in age-specific JE virus (JEV) seroprevalence over time in Korea, with a view to understanding this transition. Methods A search of Embase, MEDLINE, PubMed, KoreaMed, Korea Education and Research Information Service, National Library of Korea, and the Seoul National University Medical Library was conducted using the keywords ‘Japanese encephalitis' combined with ‘Korea', ‘seroprevalence', ‘seropositivity', ‘seroepidemiology', ‘serosurvey', ‘immunity', and ‘antibody'. Results Eighteen studies published between 1946 and 2012 were retrieved. In 1946, seropositivity was 51% in the 1–10 years age group, 79% in those aged 11–20 years, and 94% in those ≥61 years of age. In the 1970s, seropositivity in children and adolescents was low (10–59%); seropositivity in this group increased to 90–92% in 1984–1985, and increased further to 98% in 2012. Seropositivity among adults aged 41–50 years and 51–60 years in the 2010s ranged between 83.1% and 97.9% and between 77.5% and 98.3%, respectively. Conclusions The implementation of the universal JE vaccination programme in the 1980s has increased the seroprevalence of JEV in Korea, especially in children who are targeted for vaccination.

Cinnamon leaf and bark essential oils have long been used as natural preservatives and flavoring agents in foods. This study determined antimicrobial effects of leaf and bark of cinnamon essential oils (CEOs) against 2 foodborne pathogens, Salmonella Typhimurium (S.T.) and Listeria monocytogenes (L.m.), at 2 initial bacterial levels (4- and 9-log CFU/mL) in strawberry shakes. The antimicrobial study of CEOs at 0.1% and 0.5% in strawberry shakes against S.T. and L.M. showed a significant difference (P

Six black rice cultivars (Heukjinju, Sintoheugmi, Heukhyangchal 1, Bosukheukchal, Sinnongheukchal, and Josengheukchal) and varying milling degrees (step 0, 0%; step 1, 4.2%; and step 2, 10.5%, w/w) were used to evaluate the effects of cultivars and milling degrees of black rice (Oryza sativa L.) on the total phenolic contents (TPC), total flavonoid contents (TFC), antioxidant activity (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl free radical assay), and phenolic composition in free and bound phenolic fractions. Unpolished (step 0) Sintoheugmi showed significantly higher TPC, TFC, antioxidant activity, phenolic acid levels, and anthocyanin levels than other unpolished cultivars (p

Due to growing globalization, there has been an increase in demand for ethnic or ethnic-flavored foods in the retail grocery and foodservice industries. However, some consumers are unlikely to enjoy ethnic or ethnic-flavored foods due to novelty or unfamiliarity associated with them. Limited research exists on consumer behavior toward ethnic or ethnic-flavored foods as a function of food neophobia. This study aimed to determine the influence of food neophobia on Caucasian consumers’ visual attention toward packaging images, as well as sensory acceptance of ethnic-flavored potato chips. Ninety adults were divided into high food neophobia (HFN) and low food neophobia (LFN) groups based on a food neophobia scale score. All participants’ visual attention toward packaging images of ethnic-, local-, and plain-flavored potato chips were measured using an eye-tracker, and their willingness to taste, expected liking, and purchase intent were assessed. One week later, the participants rated sensory perception and liking of the potato chip samples whose packaging images had been viewed. Participants in the LFN group looked significantly longer at the descriptions of ethnic (Chinese Szechuan) and local (Southern biscuits and gravy) flavors shown on the packaging images of potato chips than did those in the HFN group. As participants in the LFN group, but not those in the HFN group, looked at the descriptions of ethnic flavors shown on the packaging longer, they were more likely to like and purchase those potato chips. There were only limited impacts of food neophobia on attribute intensities and likings of the potato chips, irrespective of flavor. In conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence that participants with a lower level of food neophobia are more attentive to descriptions regarding ethnic flavor shown on packaging of chip products, possibly inducing a higher intent of purchasing the products, although such findings vary with the type of ethnic flavor.

This study aimed to determine whether a smoking restriction prior to sensory evaluation affects sensory perception and liking of beverages that represent sweetness (sweetened cocoa), saltiness (vegetable juice), sourness (orange juice), and bitterness (black coffee). Smokers were asked to either abstain from smoking for 2 h or to smoke a cigarette 5 min prior to sensory evaluation of beverages. As a control, non-smokers participated in this study. Smokers who smoked 5 min prior to tasting beverages rated black coffee as significantly more bitter than did those who either abstained from smoking for 2 h or non-smokers. No effect of cigarette smoking was found either in intensity of other taste qualities and flavor or in the liking of the four types of beverages. This study provides empirical evidence that cigarette smokers should abstain from smoking for 2 h prior to sensory evaluation of bitter-tasting beverages such as black coffee.

This study aimed to determine individual and combined effects of smoking and marination on the sensory characteristics of boneless, skinless chicken breast meat. Four types of cooked, cold-cut chicken breast meat, i.e., marinated cooked, marinated smoked, and controls of non-marinated cooked and non-marinated smoked chicken, were evaluated for 28 sensory characteristics. Marination significantly increased saltiness, sweetness, roasted flavor, smoked flavor, and moistness of the cold-cut chicken breast meat. In addition, smoking significantly enhanced the saltiness, bitterness, roasted flavor, smoked flavor, and moistness of mass. Interestingly, a combination of smoking and marination processes resulted in a synergistic increase in the perceived moistness of mass compared to their individual treatments. In conclusion, this study demonstrates individual and combined influences of smoking and marination on the sensory characteristics of cold-cut chicken breast meat.

Ortho- and retronasal olfaction represent two aspects of a shared sensory system yet evoke different sensations. The differences between ortho- and retronasal olfaction have triggered a number of studies during the past years, which pointed towards a decreased sensitivity to odors presented through the retronasal olfactory pathway. Especially intensity was reported to be lower after retronasal olfactory stimulation. The aim of this study was to investigate how this compares to activation at the level of the olfactory epithelium in humans. Trigeminal (CO2) and olfactory (H2S, phenylethyl alcohol) stimuli were presented ortho- and retronasally. Electro-olfactograms (EOG) in response to chemosensory stimulation were recorded in 10 participants (6 women, 4 men, mean age 23.4 years). Typical EOGs were demonstrable after either orthonasal or retronasal stimulation across the stimulus qualities. Overall, EOG amplitudes to retronasal stimulation were smaller when compared to those to orthonasal stimulation, but a significant difference was obtained only in phenylethyl alcohol (p = 0.048). The present data indicate that the perceptual differences between ortho- and retronasal olfaction may start at the level of the olfactory epithelium. The data support the idea that the intensity of physically identical stimuli is lower after retronasal stimulation compared to orthonasal stimulus presentation for both olfactory and trigeminal stimuli. The current electrophysiological results are in line with reported differences in psychophysical properties of retro- and orthonasal stimulations meaning that different sensations are elicit through these two channels although the same molecule is presented.

Consumers in marketplaces usually view a variety of sustainability-related labels displayed on chicken-meat products. However, it is questionable whether consumers understand such label claims and whether their label-understanding level can be effective with respect to quality perception and sensory aspects of the products. This study aimed to determine whether the impacts of sustainability-related labels on quality perception and acceptability of chicken breast meat differ by consumers’ label-understanding level. Among 110 participants who attended a prior educational intervention regarding label claims, the 33 top-scorers of a survey examining knowledge about label claims participated as a “High Label-Understanding (HLU)” group. Thirty-three counterparts who experienced no educational intervention regarding label claims participated as a “Control (CNTL)” group; both groups were matched in terms of demographic profiles and purchase frequency of chicken-meat products. Participants in both groups evaluated the same four chicken-meat samples labeled with four different label-claims, i.e., “USDA Organic”, “No Hormones Added”, “USDA Process Verified”, and a no-label condition. For the HLU group, perceptions of chicken meat with respect to overall quality, trust in quality, freshness, overall liking, and juiciness differed significantly among the four label-claim conditions. However, no significant differences in this regard were observed in the CNTL group. The label claims-induced intensities of tenderness, juiciness, and chicken flavor of chicken-meat samples did not differ between the two groups. In conclusion, the findings demonstrated that the effects of sustainability-related label claims on quality perception and acceptability of chicken meat became significantly more pronounced when consumers understood and trusted the label claims.

This study focused on comparing the efficiency of educational intervention on improving consumers’ understanding and attitude toward sustainability and process-related label claims. Participants were randomly distributed into 1 of 3 educational-intervention groups: (1) active learning (discussing label claims with other participants), (2) passive learning (reading a flyer about label claims), and (3) passive learning with an authoritative effect (attending a professor’s lecture on label claims). Participants were asked to fill out a survey regarding their understanding and attitude toward 10 sustainability and process-related labels commonly displayed on chicken meat products at 3 different times: before, immediately after, and 2 weeks after educational intervention. Participants’ subjective understanding (self-rated awareness) and objective understanding (recall of actual knowledge) of the label claims significantly increased following educational intervention, independent of the particular type of such intervention. Participants’ attitudes toward label claims varied, however, by the type of educational intervention. Passive learning led participants not only to more trust, but also to consider label claims to be more important when purchasing chicken meat products. In contrast, active learning induced no significant change in the importance level of label claims with respect to their purchasing decision, as well as in the trustiness to label claims. In conclusion, educational intervention, whether based on passive or active learning, improves consumers’ label understanding of chicken meat products. However, since attitude toward label claims varies by the type of educational intervention, food processors and researchers should take further steps in designing more effective ways to mediate the information regarding label claims.

Increasing compliance with proper hand washing among consumers and foodservice workers during food handling and preparation is an effective strategy to minimize the spread of bacteria and disease. At home and in the food industry contributing factors and barriers exist that lead to low rates of compliance with proper hand hygiene. Recently, researchers have begun to emphasize the importance of internal motivational factors such as the emotion of disgust and how it affects hygiene behaviors. This study was designed to determine the influence of disgust and other motives on hand washing among participants when handling common foods in the foodservice industry, and if these responses are culturally dependent. A preliminary survey that showed differing levels of consumers' disgust among 21 foods commonly handled in the food industry was conducted. In the main part of the study, representatives from two cultures, Caucasian and Hispanic, were observed while they handled four common foods; apple, bread, chicken and fish. Results from this study showed that hand washing behavior was affected by the type of food being handled and the intensity of the emotion of disgust. Individuals tended to wash their hands more frequently for foods they perceived as more hazardous, and their motives to wash varied among variables of gender (self-protection for men, carryover effects for women), culture (self-protection for Caucasians, texture for Hispanics) and the type of food (self-protection for chicken, smell for fish). Additionally, as the feeling of disgust increased among individuals their probability to wash their hands also increased. Factors that did not show an influence on hand washing included the culture and gender of the participant, and whether they had past foodservice experience. These findings, in combination other studies, should be considered when designing motivation and training strategies to increase consumer or foodservice employee hand washing behaviors.

Previous studies have shown that acute stress affects food choice and the amount of consumption. However, relatively little is known about the effect of chronic stress on food perception. This study aimed to determine whether the sensory perception and impression of foods can be different under distinctive levels of chronic stress. Volunteers were asked to fill out a self-administrated questionnaire on psychological stress over the previous month (Perceived Stress Scale; PSS); the PSS score has been found to be related to psychological stress-related biomarkers such as cortisol level. Among the volunteers, those who scored below 10-point on the PSS were labeled “low stress group”, while those who scored 25-point or higher were labeled “high stress group.” Sensory perception and acceptance in response to low- and high-calorie potato chips were compared between the low and high stress groups. The intensity ratings of overall flavor, saltiness, and crispness did not significantly differ between chronic stress levels. However, hedonic ratings of the appearance and overall flavor of low-calorie chips were significantly lower in the high stress group than in the low stress group. In addition, the high stress group liked low-calorie chips significantly less than did the low stress group. Also, the high stress group was less satisfied with the low-calorie chips after eating when compared to the low stress group. However, for the high-calorie chips, there were no significant differences in the ratings of sensory intensity and liking, overall impression, and satisfaction felt after consumption, between the two chronic stress groups. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that chronic stress levels can modulate not only acceptability of low calorie-chips, but also satisfaction felt after eating.

This study aimed to examine accustomed and preferential levels of background sound in eating atmospheres across different demographics (Experiment 1) and to determine whether background sound affects the ability to discriminate overall differences between food/beverage samples (Experiment 2). A total of 244 individuals reported to experience a louder atmosphere, where individuals were more likely to interact with others, during dinner than breakfast and snack time. Furthermore, more than half (58.8%) of the respondents preferred eating while having a conversation. Only 3.7% of the respondents preferred eating in silence. In Experiment 2, 58 participants were asked to conduct overall difference tests of potato chips (original versus lightly salted) and carbonated sodas (original versus sugar free) in the presence of five sound conditions: (1) carbonation sound, (2) crisp chewing-sound, (3) classical music, (4) shadowing task, and (5) white noise. The discrimination performance was found to be less influenced by background sound in potato chips when compared to the carbonated soda, highlighting the possibility that foods with high levels of mastication sound are less susceptible to background noise. While listening to and repeating a newscast (shadowing task), 41% of the participants were able to discriminate overall sensory difference between the two different carbonated sodas, but in the presence of carbonation sound 71% of the participants were able to distinguish between the two sodas. In conclusion, our findings strengthen the claim that conversation is popular and preferred in eating atmospheres, but it may alter participants’ ability to discriminate an overall difference between different foods or beverages.

Poor hand hygiene is a leading cause for the spread of foodborne illnesses in the foodservice industry. A series of complex motivational interventions must be employed to permanently change the behavior of workers, to increase their compliance and sustain appropriate levels of proper hand hygiene. Unlike the healthcare industry, which uses large, costly multi-modal behavior modification strategies, the foodservice industry must deploy rapid, cost-efficient strategies that take into account a high employee turnover rate and diverse demographics. This paper reviews the current motivational models used in the foodservice industry and examines the habitual nature of complying with good hand hygiene. It also reviews current techniques to increase hand hygiene compliance using clues from three of the five basic senses (sight, hearing, and smell) and two mechanisms (context-bridging and disgust). Lastly, the current model for habit intervention is evaluated, and its possible applications in the foodservice industry with additional reminders are accessed. We believe that this review will provide foodservice managers the background, theoretical basis and practical applications for making long-term changes in their employees on this and similar critical behaviors in foodservice.

This study aims to examine the current attitudes of North American consumers toward food attributes, focusing on the effect of gender and age. A total of 337 participants were asked to list the first three words that come to mind when each image/name of 32 different foods was presented. The responses were grouped into seven main categories: “food attribute,” “menu uses,” “type,” “personal preference,” “health and nutrition,” “regional origin” and “others” and subsequent subcategories. The frequencies of answers for each category were compared by gender and age group. Texture- and flavor-related responses became less common as age increased. Conversely, “health and nutrition” responses became more common with increasing age. In addition, male participants were more likely to give color, flavor and food brand-related responses, while female participants were more likely to list texture, form/temperature and personal preference-related words. Furthermore, this study shows the changes in consumer attitudes toward foods for the last several decades. Practical Applications Little is known on how food attitudes change with age. The changes in food perception that accompany aging are well documented. However, the extent these changes lead to altered attitudes toward food has not been examined. In addition, for approximately 50 years, the food industry has been operating on the same information regarding the importance of texture and other food attributes to consumers. During this period, many changes in demographics and cuisine have occurred, yet we do not know how these have affected consumer attitude toward foods. This study gives insight into changes in consumer attitudes toward foods since the 1960s and 1970s, as well as changes associated with aging for food scientists, food processors and business marketers.

This study aimed to determine whether acceptability of rice‐based milk alternatives (RMAs) is influenced by sensory attributes and nonsensory factors, in particular with respect to US consumers' demographic profiles, frequency of RMA consumption, and food neophobia traits. Ten trained panelists evaluated 7 commercially‐available RMA samples with respect to 23 attributes, and 101 consumer panelists rated both hedonic impressions and just‐about‐right (JAR) intensities of attributes among the 7 RMA samples. Descriptive sensory analysis revealed that the 7 RMA samples differed significantly in terms of the 13 attributes. A partial least squares regression found that overall liking of RMAs was positively associated with higher intensities of sweetness, astringency, and nutty, vanillin, and grainy flavor attributes, while it was negatively associated with higher intensities of yeasty/fermented, vanillin, and starchy aromas, yeasty/fermented and cardboard flavors, bitter and sour tastes, and dark color. Consumers with higher food neophobia traits were found to like flavors of RMAs less. Overall likings of RMAs did not differ as a function of gender, age group, annual household income, and frequency of RMA consumption. In conclusion, this study provides a better understanding of sensory attributes, consumer acceptability, and drivers of liking for commercially‐available RMAs in the U.S. market. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Rice‐based milk alternatives are one category of nondairy milk alternatives commercially available in the U.S. market. Food manufacturers, marketers, and sensory professionals should consider RMAs' sensory attributes and consumers' food neophobia traits not only when designing new products, but also when promoting their products to potential customers.

The food and beverage industry has been increasingly replacing sugar with non-nutritive sweeteners in their sweetened products to control or reduce total calories. Research comparing the effect of nutritive and non-nutritive sweeteners on emotional state of participants exposed to acute stressors is still limited. This study aimed to determine the effect of drinking tea sweetened with either a nutritive sweetener (sugar) or a non-nutritive sweetener (sucralose or stevia) on emotional state, in terms of calmness and pleasantness, of participants exposed to an acute stressor. Effects of acute stress on sweetness intensity and overall liking of tea beverages were also determined. Results showed that the possibility of tea-induced calmness, calculated as the difference between calmness ratings after and before drinking a tea sample, was established on stress session in the sugar-sweetened tea. Overall liking, but not the sweetness intensity, of the sugar-sweetened tea was affected by acute stress. In conclusion, this study provides empirical evidence that the consumption of tea sweetened with nutritive sweetener, but not with non-nutritive sweetener, has calming effect on consumers with acute stress, suggesting that this effect may not be due to the sweet taste of sugar, but due to the caloric nature of the sweetener.

Lack of hand washing is a leading cause of food borne illnesses. To successfully increase hand hygiene compliance, interventions must have continual engagement with employees. This study used a real-time prospective memory (PM) scenario to measure the effectiveness of a control and sensory reminders of disgust to influence hand washing behavior and performance. First, a model of hand washing performance was built by having six participants’ hands contaminated with GermGlo (a florescent micro-particle) and then washed their hands using predetermined protocols while monitored by an electronic hand hygiene verification (HHV) system. Next, eighty Hispanic/Latino participants, in a between-group experimental design, performed a PM experiment while one of four reminders were present (hand washing poster, disgusting image, disgusting sound and disgusting odor) as the HHV recorded their hand washing performance. Visual cues, typical of hand washing campaigns, were not as effective at increasing hand hygiene compliance as disgust-induced sensory cues. Furthermore, olfactory disgust showed a significantly higher probability that individuals would engage in hand washing behaviors than all other conditions. This study provides new insight into the effectiveness of different senses and emotion to reduce the intention-behavior gap associated with modifying behaviors and broadens current PM research to a real-time application.

Excessive intake of dietary salt (sodium chloride) may increase the risk of chronic diseases. Accordingly, various strategies to reduce salt intake have been conducted. This study aimed to investigate whether a salty‐congruent odor can enhance saltiness on the basis of psychophysical (Experiment 1) and neuroanatomical levels (Experiment 2). In Experiment 1, after receiving one of six stimulus conditions: three odor conditions (odorless air, congruent, or incongruent odor) by two concentrations (low or high) of either salty or sweet taste solution, participants were asked to rate taste intensity and pleasantness. In Experiment 2, participants received the same stimuli during the functional magnetic resonance imaging scan. In Experiment 1, compared with an incongruent odor and/or odorless air, a congruent odor enhanced not only taste intensity but also either pleasantness of sweetness or unpleasantness of saltiness. In Experiment 2, a salty‐congruent combination of odor and taste produced significantly higher neuronal activations in brain regions associated with odor–taste integration (e.g., insula, frontal operculum, anterior cingulate cortex, and orbitofrontal cortex) than an incongruent combination and/or odorless air with taste solution. In addition, the congruent odor‐induced saltiness enhancement was more pronounced in the low‐concentrated tastant than in the high‐concentrated one. In conclusion, this study demonstrates the congruent odor‐induced saltiness enhancement on the basis of psychophysical and neuroanatomical results. These findings support an alternative strategy to reduce excessive salt intake by adding salty‐congruent aroma to sodium reduced food. However, there are open questions regarding the salty‐congruent odor‐induced taste unpleasantness. Hum Brain Mapp, 2013. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Even though we often perceive odors in the presence of various background sounds, surprisingly little is known about the effects of background sound on odor perception. This study aimed to investigate the question whether background sound can modulate performance in an odor discrimination task. In Experiment 1, participants were asked to perform the odor discrimination task while listening to either background noise (e.g., verbal or non-verbal noise) or no additional sound (i.e., silent condition). Participants' performance in the odor discrimination task was significantly deteriorated in the presence of background noise compared with in the silent condition. Rather, the detrimental effect of verbal noise on the task performance was significantly higher than that of non-verbal noise. In Experiment 2, participants were asked to conduct the odor discrimination task while listening to either background music (Mozart's sonata for two pianos in D major, K448) or no additional sound (silent condition). Background music relative to silent condition did not significantly alter the task performance. In conclusion, our findings provide new empirical evidence that background sound modulates the performance in an odor discrimination task.

Odor identification tests are widely used for the general screening of olfactory function. However, the administration of odor identification tests is often limited due to a lack of investigators' time. Therefore, we attempted to design a computer-controlled olfactometer to present a self-administered odor identification test. The results produced by means of this olfactometer were evaluated in terms of validity and test-retest reliability. To test the validity, participants' performance in the odor identification test using the olfactometer was compared with their performance in the odor identification test using the validated assessment of the "Sniffin' Sticks" test. The ten-item odor identification test was performed two times using two different methods: (1) the self-administered test using the computer-controlled olfactometer and (2) the foreign-administered test using the "Sniffin' sticks." To examine test-retest reliability, 20 participants were asked to repeat these tests on a different day. Participants reached significantly higher scores on a foreign-administered odor identification test using the "Sniffin' sticks" than on the olfactometer-based test; however, this effect was driven by two less correctly identified odors in the olfactometer-based test. The significant difference between both methods in the mean scores disappeared after excluding two odors from the analysis. In addition, both methods showed no significant difference in scores obtained during the first and second session, indicating that results were consistent between sessions. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that the computer-controlled olfactometer designed in this study can be used for a self-administered odor identification test.

Aim of this study was to investigate the impact of olfactory dysfunction on behavior during sensory evaluation and self-preparation, as well as on sensory perception and pleasantness of green tea and coffee. We compared the intensities of overall odor, flavor, and bitter taste, respectively, and the pleasantness ratings for three different concentrations of green teas and coffees between three groups: young (n=30) and elderly (n=30) with normal olfactory function and elderly (n=30) with olfactory dysfunction. In addition, we compared the subject groups' behavior during sensory testing and preparation of green tea or coffee. As expected, elderly subjects with olfactory dysfunction rated the overall odor intensity less intense than subjects with normal olfactory function. Also, elderly subjects with olfactory dysfunction rated the intensities of overall flavor and bitter taste significantly lower rather than subjects with normal olfactory function in green tea, whereas this result was not obtained in coffee. Compared to young subjects with normal olfactory function, elderly with olfactory dysfunction used more green tea powder to optimize their own green tea. Moreover, olfactory function scores assessed by the "Sniffin' Sticks" test were positively related with sniffing frequency for green tea and with sniffing time for coffee during sensory evaluation. During preparation of the green tea, compared to elderly subjects, young healthy subjects tried to adjust the green tea more frequently by adding green tea powder or water. Such behavioral differences were not present during coffee preparation. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that olfactory dysfunction affects odor perception and sniffing behavior. However, under the current conditions, it appeared to have no effect on hedonic ratings and self-preparation behaviors.

Electroolfactograms (EOGs) are the summated generator potentials of olfactory receptor neurons measured directly from the olfactory epithelium. To validate the sensory origin of the human EOG, we set out to ask whether EOGs measured in humans were odorant concentration dependent. Each of 22 subjects (12 women, mean age = 23.3 yr) was tested with two odorants, either valeric acid and linalool ( n = 12) or isovaleric acid and l-carvone ( n = 10), each delivered at four concentrations diluted with warm (37°C) and humidified (80%) odorless air. In behavior, increased odorant concentration was associated with increased perceived intensity (all F > 5, all P < 0.001). In EOG, increased odorant concentration was associated with increased area under the EOG curve (all F > 8, all P < 0.001). These findings substantiate EOG as a tool for probing olfactory coding directly at the level of olfactory receptor neurons in humans.

The currently presented large dataset (n = 1,422) consists of results that have been assembled over the last 8 years at science fairs using the 16-item odor identification part of the "Sniffin' Sticks". In this context, the focus was on olfactory function in children; in addition before testing, we asked participants to rate their olfactory abilities and the patency of the nasal airways. We reinvestigated some simple questions, e.g., differences in olfactory odor identification abilities in relation to age, sex, self-ratings of olfactory function and nasal patency. Three major results evolved: first, consistent with previously published reports, we found that identification scores of the youngest and the oldest participants were lower than the scores obtained by people aged 20-60. Second, we observed an age-related increase in the olfactory abilities of children. Moreover, the self-assessed olfactory abilities were related to actual performance in the smell test, but only in adults, and self-assessed nasal patency was not related to the "Sniffin' Sticks" identification score.

This study aimed to determine whether there is an interaction between small (i.e., table setting) and large (i.e., eating location) scales of the eating environments in affecting food acceptance and consumption. An identical roast chicken was presented at three table-setting conditions: plastic tray (PT), home-style table (HT), and gourmet table (GT) settings both in sensory testing booths and realistic contexts (e.g., classroom for PT, home-style dining room for HT, and restaurant for GT). Participants favored the appearance of food served at a gourmet table setting located in a restaurant setting significantly more than in a sensory testing booth. The participants were more willing to eat the food served using a gourmet table setting in the restaurant setting than in the sensory testing booth, leading to a significant increase in their food consumption. In addition, participants consumed food more slowly and perceived themselves to be less hungry when they ate in realistic contexts rather than in sensory testing booths. In conclusion, our findings demonstrated that food acceptance and intake can vary according to whether the small (table setting) and large (eating location) scales of the eating environments are well-matched or not., This research was supported by start-up funding from the University of Arkansas Division of Agriculture to Han-Seok Seo. All authors would like to thank Tonya Tokar and Pauline Mony for their help and contributions in this study.

In the US, one in every three children ages 2-19 is overweight or obese. Although multifactorial in nature, obesity is primarily attributed to a mismatch between energy intake and energy expenditure (EE). One factor that influences this balance is thermic effect of food (TEF). Diets higher in protein have been shown to increase TEF. Breakfast is a key component of a healthy diet and can positively impact children’s health. It has been suggested that skipping breakfast may lead to greater hunger later in the day, resulting in greater overeating. The objective of this study was to determine if an egg/protein (PRO)-based breakfast (22% PRO, 48% carbohydrate (CHO), 30% fat) would enhance TE, improve glycemic control and reduce hunger in NW (n=14) and OW (n=11) school-aged children compared to an isocaloric CHO-based breakfast (5% PRO, 65% CHO, 30% fat). Twenty-three children (8-12 y) completed both the PRO and CHO breakfast trials. EE was determined via indirect calorimetry at 0, 30, 60, 120, and 240 min post...

Little is known about the effect of serving temperature on saltiness perception in food products such as soups that are typically consumed at high temperature. This study focused on determining whether serving temperature modulates saltiness perception in soup-base products. Eight trained panelists and 62 untrained consumers were asked to rate saltiness intensities in salt water, chicken broth, and miso soup, with serving temperatures of 40, 50, 60, 70, and 80 °C. Neither trained nor untrained panelists were able to find significant difference in the saltiness intensity among salt water samples served at these five different temperatures. However, untrained consumers (but not trained panelists) rated chicken broth and miso soup to be significantly less salty when served at 70 and/or 80 °C compared to when served at 40 to 60 °C. There was an interaction between temperature-related perceived saltiness and preference; for example, consumers who preferred soups served at lower temperatures found soups served at higher temperatures to be less salty. Consumers who frequently consumed hot dishes rated soup samples served at 60 °C as saltier than consumers who consumed hot dishes less frequently. This study demonstrates that soup serving temperature and consumer dietary habits are influential factors affecting saltiness perception of soup.

This study aimed to determine 1) whether certain background sounds can be matched with specific odors and 2) whether the background sounds can increase pleasantness for their congruent odors. In Experiment 1, congruent sounds increased odor pleasantness, but not odor intensity, significantly more than incongruent sounds. Experiment 2 demonstrated that certain background sounds can be paired with specific odors. For example, cinnamon, clove, and orange odors were rated significantly more congruent with a Christmas carol compared with the sound of brushing teeth and/or the beach sound. The congruent sounds increased odor pleasantness significantly more than incongruent sounds. Similarly, the congruent sound–induced odor pleasantness was observed in Experiment 3. As participants judged the pair of odor and sound to be more congruent, they rated the odor significantly more pleasant. Congruent sound assisted participants in identifying and in being familiar with the odor, thereby leading to an increase in odor pleasantness. However, the congruent sound–induced odor pleasantness was not obtained in all odors. In conclusion, this study provides new empirical evidence that pleasantness ratings for odors can increase in the presence of their congruent sounds.

R67 dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) is an R-plasmid-encoded enzyme that confers clinical resistance to the antibacterial drug trimethoprim. This enzyme shows no sequence or structural homology to the chromosomal DHFRs. The active form of the protein is a homotetramer possessing D(2) symmetry and a single active-site pore. Two tryptophans occur per monomer: W38 and its symmetry-related residues (W138, W238, and W338) occur at the dimer-dimer interfaces, while W45 and its symmetry-related partners (W145, W245, and W345) occur at the monomer-monomer interfaces. Two single-tryptophan mutant genes were constructed to determine the structural and functional consequences of four mutations per tetramer. The W45F mutant retains full enzyme activity and the fluorescence environment of the unmutated W38 residues clearly monitors ligand binding and a pH dependent tetramer right harpoon over left harpoon 2 dimers equilibrium. In contrast, four simultaneous W38F mutations at the dimer-dimer interfaces result in tetramer destabilization. The ensuing dimer is relatively inactive, as is dimeric wild-type R67 DHFR. A comparison of emission spectra indicates the fluorescent signal of wild-type R67 DHFR is dominated by the contribution from W38. Equilibrium unfolding/folding curves at pH 5.0, where all protein variants are dimeric, indicate the environment monitored by the W38 residue is slightly less stable than the environment monitored by the W45 residue.

Behavioral evidence indicates that odor evoked autobiographical memories (OEAMs) are older, more emotional, less thought of and induce stronger time traveling characteristics than autobiographical memories (AMs) evoked by other modalities. The main aim of this study was to explore the neural correlates of AMs evoked by odors as a function of retrieval cue. Participants were screened for specific OEAMs and later presented with the odor cue and its verbal referent in an fMRI paradigm. Because the same OEAM was retrieved across both cue formats (odor and word), potential cue dependent brain activations were investigated. The overall results showed that odor and word cued OEAMs activated regions typically associated with recollection of autobiographical information. Although no odors were presented, a verbal cuing of the OEAMs activated areas associated with olfactory perception (e.g., piriform cortex). However, relative to word cuing, an odor cuing of OEAMs resulted in more activity in MTL regions such as the parahippocampus, and areas involved in visual vividness (e.g., occipital gyrus and precuneus). Furthermore, odor cues activated areas related to emotional processing, such as limbic and tempopolar regions significantly more. In contrast, word cues relative to odor cues recruited a more widespread and bilateral prefrontal activity. Hippocampus activity did not vary as function of the remoteness of the memory, but recollection of OEAMs from the 1st vs the 2nd decade of life showed specific activation in the right OFC, whereas the 2nd reflected a higher activation in the left inferior frontal gyrus.

Although the brain structures involved in integrating odorant and trigeminal stimuli are well-documented, there is still a need to clarify (1) how emotional response is represented in the human brain during cross-modal interaction between odors and trigeminal stimuli, and (2) whether the degree of congruency between the two types of stimuli influences these emotional responses and their neural processing. These questions were explored combining psychophysics, event-related potentials (ERP) and fMRI in the same group of 17 subjects under a “congruent condition” (intranasal carbon dioxide mixed with the smell of orange, a combination found in soda drinks, for example), and an “incongruent condition” (intranasal carbon dioxide mixed with the smell of rose, a combination not encountered in everyday life). Responses to the 3 constituent stimuli (carbon dioxide, orange, and rose) were also measured. Hedonic and intensity ratings were collected for all stimulations. The congruent bimodal stimulus was rated as more pleasant than the incongruent. This behavioral effect was associated with enhanced neural activity in the hippocampus and anterior cingulate gyrus, indicating that these brain areas mediate reactivation of pleasant and congruent olfactory-trigeminal associations.

How the pleasantness of chemosensory stimuli such as odorants or intranasal trigeminal compounds is processed in the human brain has been the focus of considerable recent interest. Yet, so far, only the unimodal form of this hedonic processing has been explored, and not its bimodal form during crossmodal integration of olfactory and trigeminal stimuli. The main purpose of the present study was to investigate this question. To this end, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) was used in an experiment comparing brain activation related to a pleasant and a relatively unpleasant olfacto-trigeminal mixture, and to their individual components (CO(2) alone, Orange alone, Rose alone). Results revealed first common neural activity patterns in response to both mixtures in a number of regions: notably the superior temporal gyrus and the caudate nucleus. Common activations were also observed in the insula, although the pleasant mixture activated the right insula whereas the unpleasant mixture activated the left insula. However, specific activations were observed in anterior cingulate gyrus and the ventral tegmental area only during the perception of the pleasant mixture. These findings emphasized for the firs time the involvement of the latter structures in processing of pleasantness during crossmodal integration of chemosensory stimuli.

In a subset of aspirin-tolerant asthmatics, administration of aspirin improves respiratory symptoms. We present a patient with chronic rhinosinusitis with nasal polyps who exhibited relief of nasal obstruction and nasal discharge and improvement in the sense of smell following oral administration of 150 mg of aspirin daily. Improvement in the patency of the nasal passages was documented by nasal endoscopy and magnetic resonance imaging. Improvement of olfactory function was documented by validated psychophysical olfactory testing and by means of olfactory event-related potentials.

Due to the low yield of AFB smear and culture in extrapulmonary tuberculosis, therapeutic responses of patients with extrapulmonary tuberculosis are usually monitored clinically and/or radiographically. Such monitoring techniques, however, are not enough to provide effective diagnosis if a remnant lesion exists after treatment. Tuberculosis presents hypermetabolic activity on F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography/computed tomography (F-18 FDG PET/CT) scanning. Reported herein is a case of extrapulmonary tuberculosis where the therapeutic response was assessed via serial F-18 FDG PET/CT scanning, which was useful for detecting the extent of extrapulmonary tuberculosis and for estimating the patient’s therapeutic response.

Urethral metastasis from colorectal cancer is rare and is known to have a poor prognosis. A 72-year-old man with a history of colectomy and colostomy due to sigmoid colon cancer was admitted to the emergency room with bowel distension, rectal bleeding and urinary symptoms. Computed tomography of the abdominopelvis showed sigmoid colon cancer with multiple metastases involving the liver. Positron emission tomography with F-18 fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) showed multiple hypermetabolic foci in the liver, penis and pubic bone, which otherwise could not be diagnosed. The lesions revealed no improvement with chemotherapy and urological surgery on follow-up F-18 FDG PET/CT. We present a case of urethral metastasis of sigmoid colon cancer diagnostically and prognostically indicated by F-18 FDG PET/CT.

Even though we often perceive odors while hearing auditory stimuli, surprisingly little is known about auditory-olfactory integration. This study aimed to investigate the influence of auditory cues on ratings of odor intensity and/or pleasantness, with a focus on 2 factors: "congruency" (Experiment 1) and the "halo/horns effect" of auditory pleasantness (Experiment 2). First, in Experiment 1, participants were presented with congruent, incongruent, or neutral sounds before and during the presentation of odor. Participants rated the odors as being more pleasant while listening to a congruent sound than while listening to an incongruent sound. In Experiment 2, participants received pleasant or unpleasant sounds before and during the presentation of either a pleasant or unpleasant odor. The hedonic valence of the sounds transferred to the odors, irrespective of the hedonic tone of the odor itself. The more the participants liked the preceding sound, the more pleasant the subsequent odor became. In contrast, the ratings of odor intensity appeared to be little or not at all influenced by the congruency or hedonic valence of the auditory cue. In conclusion, the present study for the first time provides an empirical demonstration that auditory cues can modulate odor pleasantness.

Although it is well known that visual stimuli affect olfactory performance, little is known about the reverse case: the influence of odor on visual performance. This study aimed to determine whether odors can enhance attention towards visually presented objects congruent with the odors. Sixty healthy participants were presented with four odors (orange, lavender, coffee, and liquorice) before and during the presentation of photographic slides containing one congruent and three incongruent objects with the presented odors. The participants' visual attention was assessed as the total number and time of eye fixations by using an eye tracking system. When the participants smelled an odor, they looked more frequently and longer at a corresponding object as compared to the odorless condition. In conclusion, our findings demonstrate for the first time an olfactory priming effect on visual selective attention: odor can increase attention towards a congruent visual object as compared to a non-odor condition. (C) 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Despite high prevalence of olfactory loss in the elderly, this is typically overlooked. The aim of this study was to examine the impact of olfactory loss on depression, cognitive performance, and quality of life (QoL) in the general population of South Korea, and also to investigate the association between the above variables. A total of 127 Korean elderly aged from 65 to 89 years participated in this study. Olfactory sensitivity, depression, cognitive performance, and QoL were assessed with TT olfactometry, the Geriatric Depression Scale, Mini-Mental State Examination, and a questionnaire for Geriatric Quality of Life, respectively. Subjects with severely impaired olfactory function showed a significantly higher degree of depression, lower cognitive performance, and decreased QoL compared to subjects with normal to moderately impaired olfaction. However, when controlling for cognitive performance, the olfactory sensitivity was not correlated with degrees of depression and QoL. In conclusion, our findings confirm the relationships of olfactory loss with depression, cognitive performance, and QoL; they also indicate that tests of olfactory function could be used in the screening for cognitive impairment.

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether pupillary responses to odorous stimuli reflect their intensity or hedonic tone. A total of 21 healthy subjects participated in the study. Using a computer-controlled olfactometer, subjects received intranasal stimuli including odors of rose (PEA; 2 concentrations), lemon and rotten eggs, plus the trigeminal irritant CO2 (also at two concentrations). Changes in the pupil diameter were obtained ipsilaterally to the side of stimulus presentation. Both trigeminal and olfactory stimulation produced an increase in pupillary diameter. Latencies for pupillary reaction were fastest for the higher concentration of CO2 and slowest after the presentation of PEA at the low concentration. Response amplitudes were largest in response to stimulation with CO2 at the high concentration, while they were smallest in response to odorous stimulation with PEA. Response latencies decreased with increasing stimulus intensity. No such correlation was found for hedonic ratings and pupillary reactions. Thus, the change in the pupillary diameter indicates differences between stimulus modalities and stimulus strength, but not pleasantness or unpleasantness of the odors.

Clinical experience shows that the individual significance of olfactory function varies between subjects. In order to estimate these individual differences we developed a questionnaire to study the subjective importance of the sense of smell. Questions were arranged within three subscales: association with olfactory sensations, application of the sense of smell, and the readiness to draw consequences from the olfactory perception. The questionnaire was shown to be time efficient, suitable for normosmic subjects and patients with hyposmia or anosmia. It exhibited a good internal reliability (Cronbach’s Alpha = 0.77). First results in 123 subjects indicate that the subjective importance of the sense of smell stays at the same level throughout life-span despite of a decreased olfactory sensitivity. Furthermore, women reported a higher importance of olfaction. It is hoped that this questionnaire will contribute to clarify, for example, cross-cultural differences in the perception of odours.

The aim of this study was 2-fold: (i) to demonstrate influences of roasted coffee bean aroma on rat brain functions by using the transcriptomics and proteomics approaches and (ii) to evaluate the impact of roasted coffee bean aroma on stress induced by sleep deprivation. The aroma of the roasted coffee beans was administered to four groups of adult male Wistar rats: 1, control group; 2, 24 h sleep deprivation-induced stress group (the stress group); 3, coffee aroma-exposed group without stress (the coffee group); and 4, the stress with coffee aroma group (the stress with coffee group). Reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) analysis of some known genes responsive to aroma or stress was performed using total RNA from these four groups. A total of 17 selected genes of the coffee were differently expressed over the control. Additionally, the expression levels of 13 genes were different between the stress group and the stress with coffee group: Up-regulation was found for 11 genes, and down-regulation was seen for two genes in the stress with coffee group. We also looked to changes in protein profiles in these four samples using two-dimensional (2D) gel electrophoresis; 25 differently expressed gel spots were detected on 2D gels stained by silver nitrate. Out of these, a total of nine proteins were identified by mass spectrometry. Identified proteins belonged to five functional categories: antioxidant; protein fate; cell rescue, defense, and virulence; cellular communication/signal transduction mechanism; and energy metabolism. Among the differentially expressed genes and proteins between the stress and the stress with coffee group, NGFR, trkC, GIR, thiol-specific antioxidant protein, and heat shock 70 kDa protein 5 are known to have antioxidant or antistress functions. In conclusion, the roasted coffee bean aroma changes the mRNA and protein expression levels of the rat brain, providing for the first time clues to the potential antioxidant or stress relaxation activities of the coffee bean aroma.

In spite of its importance, there have been few attempts to evaluate the sensory attributes of the food bolus during swallowing. In the current study, the slipperiness, the degree of slide for the food bolus through the mucosal surface of the oro-pharynx, and the compliance, how easily the shape of a food bolus can be transformed for automatic and comfortable swallowing, were derived among several sensory attributes related to the swallowing. Therefore, the study aims were twofold: (1) to develop the methods of sensory and instrumental analyses for determining the slipperiness and compliance of the food bolus during swallowing and (2) to examine the appropriateness of the newly designed devices by correlating the data between the sensory and instrumental analyses. Six commercial food products were evaluated by 10 trained panelists for each attribute. The devices for assessing each attribute were developed in consideration of the oro-pharyngeal movements. The sensory and instrumental analyses showed high correlation and regression coefficients as well as intensity differences of the 6 samples for each attribute. In conclusion, the slipperiness and the compliance were suitable for acquiring a better understanding of the sensory attributes of the food bolus during swallowing, and the newly developed devices showed a high potential for determining those attributes.

Objectives: To assess dietary behavior and possible changes in food selection in patients with smell loss. Patients and Methods: A total of 176 patients (114 women and 62 men) age 17 to 86 years were classified into three diagnostic groups (normosmia, n = 12; hyposmia, n = 75; functional anosmia, n = 89) according to their olfactory test scores obtained with “Sniffin' Sticks.” Group differences in food intake and dietary behaviors were investigated with a specifically designed questionnaire providing a dietary alterations score (DAS). Results: Numerous dietary changes were reported, e.g., 29% of all patients reported that they eat less since the onset of olfactory dysfunction, 39% use more spices with their food, 47% go out to eat at restaurants less frequently, 37% eat less sweets, and 48% drink less sweet beverages. Subjects with weight gain or weight loss scored higher on the DAS scale than subjects who did not report changes in weight. Similarly, DAS scale changes were more pronounced in subjects with a gradual onset of olfactory loss compared to subjects with a sudden loss of olfaction. Finally, a change of taste preferences toward savory and salty foods was observed across all patients enrolled in the present study. Conclusions: Patients with olfactory loss report alterations of dietary behaviors. Numerous factors appear to impact the results of olfactory loss in terms of changes in diet.

Objective To compare the importance of olfaction in daily life between patients with olfactory disorders and healthy normosmic individuals. Design Quasiexperimental. Participants A total of 470 individuals (235 anosmic or hyposmic patients and 235 normosmic control individuals). Main Outcome Measures The Individual Importance of Olfaction Questionnaire (IO) and olfactory testing using the “Sniffin’ Sticks” test kit. Results The IO scores were lower in people with smell disorders compared with normosmic subjects ( P P Conclusions These scores suggest adjustment processes in the daily use of the sense of smell by patients. Patients attach less importance to their current sense of smell in daily life than do normosmic individuals. This adjustment might be an example of regaining psychological health despite acquired and long-lasting impairments.

A 36-year-old male patient with no remarkable medical history was admitted to our hospital for a health check up. On chest radiography, bilateral aortic notches at the level of aortic arch were shown suggesting aortic arch anomaly without any clinical symptoms. Two aortic arches were almost same-in-size on suprasternal view of transthoracic echocardiography. In addition, multidetector computed tomography showed balanced type double aortic arch forming a complete vascular ring which encircled the trachea and esophagus. The trachea was slightly compressed by the vascular ring whereas the esophagus was intact. Nevertheless, the pulmonary function test was normal. The patient was discharged from hospital with instructions for periodic follow-up.