Search

Background Eating disorders (ED) involve both the nervous system and the gastrointestinal tract. A similar double involvement is also found in disorders of the brain-gut interaction (DGBI) and symptoms are sometimes similar. Aim To find out where there is an association and a cause-effect relationship, we looked for the comorbidity of DGBI and ED. Methods A systematic review was undertaken. A literature search was performed. Inclusion criteria for the articles retained for analysis were: Observational cohort population-based or hospital-based and case-control studies, examining the relationship between DGBI and ED. Exclusion criteria were: Studies written in other languages than English, abstracts, conference presentations, letters to the Editor and editorials. Selected papers by two independent investigators were critically evaluated and included in this review. Results We found 29 articles analyzing the relation between DGBI and ED comprising 13 articles on gastroparesis, 5 articles on functional dyspepsia, 7 articles about functional constipation and 4 articles on irritable bowel syndrome. Conclusion There is no evidence for a cause-effect relationship between DGBI and ED. Their common symptomatology requires correct identification and a tailored therapy of each disorder.

BACKGROUND The pathophysiology of bloating is partially understood. We investigated in patients with disorders of gut-brain interaction (DGBI) the relationship between severity of bloating, abdominal girth changes and defecation pattern, and the efficacy of pelvic floor biofeedback treatment on bloating. METHODS Disorders of gut-brain interaction patients with severe bloating as the main complaint were prescribed 2 weeks dietary advice and underwent abdominal girth measurements. At the first visit, all patients underwent a questionnaire on the subjective improvement of bloating, a (0-100) VAS abdominal bloating, and abdominal girth measurement. Patients reporting inadequate bloating relief underwent a standardized balloon expulsion test. Furthermore, they were invited to undergo pelvic floor electromyography and biofeedback treatment previously used for constipation due to dyssynergic defecation. The primary outcome was bloating improvement on a 5-point Likert scale. The secondary outcomes were the effect of diet intervention and pelvic floor biofeedback treatment on bloating severity and quality of life changes as well as the effect of pelvic floor biofeedback treatment on BET and EMG on straining. KEY RESULTS One hundred and fifty six patients (129 F, 39.3 ± 11.7 mean age) completed the 2-week run-in period. 105 patients were diet non-responder and underwent balloon expulsion test, with the vast majority (64%) failing the test. Patients who scored higher bloating on VAS had a significant association with failed balloon expulsion test (adjusted B 0.4 [95% CI 10.8-25.7], p

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs) are conditions affecting the gut at different levels characterized by an abnormal activation of the intestinal immune system. In this narrative review, we will provide the reader with an update on the efficacy and safety of new pharmacological strategies to treat IBD patients.We performed a thorough literature review via PubMed, EMBASE, MEDLINE and Science Direct databases addressing studies reporting on new therapies for IBD management published in the last ten years (January 2010-December 2020). Data from pharmaceutical companies and abstracts of conferences/meetings have also been considered.The discovery of monoclonal antibodies blocking pro-inflammatory cytokines, e.g., tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) radically changed the management of IBDs. Anti-TNF-α agents represent the prototype molecule of "biologics"/"biologicals." These compounds have significantly improved the therapeutic management of IBDs refractory to standard medications as they provide clinical remission, mucosal healing and prevent extra-intestinal manifestations. However, about 50% of patients treated with biologicals experienced drawbacks, including primary failure or loss of response, requiring new effective treatments. Translational studies have identified new strategies, different from the TNF-α blockade, and new molecules, e.g. sphingosine-1-phosphate agonists and the JAK kinase inhibitors, have been proposed as potential therapeutic options for IBDs.With the availability of novel approaches reviewed in this article, physicians and especially gastroenterologists will increase the therapeutic options to provide a better management of IBD patients, particularly those poorly responsive to biologicals.

BACKGROUND Chronic constipation is a prevalent disorder that affects quality of life of patients and consumes resources in healthcare systems worldwide. In clinical practice, it is still considered a challenge as clinicians frequently are unsure as to which treatments to use and when. Over a decade ago, a Neurogastroenterology and Motility journal supplement devoted to the investigation and management of constipation was published (Neurogastroenterol Motil 2009;21(Suppl 2):1). In October 2018, the 3rd London Masterclass, entitled "Contemporary management of constipation" was held. The faculty members of this symposium were invited to write two reviews to present a collective synthesis of talks presented and discussions held during this meeting. The first review addresses epidemiology, diagnosis, clinical associations, pathophysiology, and investigation. PURPOSE The present is the second of these reviews, providing contemporary perspectives and clinical challenges regarding behavioral, conservative, medical, and surgical treatments for patients presenting with constipation. It includes a management algorithm to guide clinical practice.

Background Functional dyspepsia (FD) is one of the most frequent functional gastrointestinal disorders and is defined using the Rome IV criteria as any combination of the following symptoms: postprandial fullness, early satiety, epigastric pain, and epigastric burning that are severe enough to interfere with the usual activities and occur at least 3 days per week over the past 3 months with an onset of at least 6 months before the presentation. The purpose of this systematic review is to analyze all the relevant studies in the literature that investigate the efficiency of hypnotherapy in FD. Areas of uncertainty FD refractory to conservative treatment is a therapeutic challenge, and alternative treatment options are needed. Gut-oriented hypnotherapy has been reported an effective treatment for irritable bowel syndrome, but poorly tested in FD. Data sources We performed a search in 6 bibliographic databases (PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Scopus, and LILACS) using customized search strategies for each engine. The search strategy included the following terms: (hypnosis, hypnotherapy, hypnotherapies, hypnogenesis, hypnotism, hypnotist, hypnotical suggestion, suggestion, and mesmerism) and {[functional and (dyspepsia or dyspeptic)] or FD}. Results Taking the aforementioned criteria into account, the result was a review of 4 articles analyzing the efficacy of hypnotherapy in the treatment of FD, published in the past 20 years. The initial search identified 398 articles, of which 37 potentially appropriate articles were reviewed. Of these 37 articles, 4 articles were included in the review. The benefits observed by numerous studies go beyond the field of digestive pathology, patients describing a general improvement in physical and mental health. Conclusions Current studies analyzing the efficacy of hypnotherapy in FD provide encouraging data, but additional randomized controlled trials are needed before a firm position on the effectiveness of hypnosis in FD.

Background: Opioid-induced bowel dysfunction is a complication of opioid therapy, in which constipation is the most common and problematic symptom. However, it is frequently under-recognised and thus effective management is often not instituted despite a number of treatment options. Objective: The central objective of this study is to provide a summary of the pathophysiology and clinical evaluation of opioid-induced constipation and to provide a pragmatic management algorithm for day-to-day clinical practice. Methods: This summary and the treatment algorithm is based on the opinion of a European expert panel evaluating current evidence in the literature. Results: The pathophysiology of opioid-induced constipation is multi-faceted. The key aspect of managing opioid-induced constipation is early recognition. Specific management includes increasing fluid intake, exercise and standard laxatives as well as addressing exacerbating factors. The Bowel Function Index is a useful way of objectively evaluating severity of opioid-induced constipation and monitoring response. Second-line treatments can be considered in those with recalcitrant symptoms, which include gut-restricted or peripherally acting mu-opioid receptor antagonists. However, a combination of interventions may be needed. Conclusion: Opioid-induced constipation is a common, yet under-recognised and undertreated, complication of opioid therapy. We provide a pragmatic step-wise approach to opioid-induced constipation, which should simplify management for clinicians. ispartof: United European Gastroenterology Journal vol:7 issue:1 pages:7-20 ispartof: location:England status: published

Background and Aims: The Western diet is rich in saturated fats, refined sugars and meat consistent with a high-energy load and secondary risk of increased metabolic diseases including nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). However, no data are available on potential benefit of vegan diets in NAFLD and/or nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH). We aimed to study prospectively the effect of a vegan diet, excluding all animal products on liver chemistry in a group of consecutive NAFLD patients. Methods: This was a prospective, pilot study run on 40 consecutive patients affected by NAFLD. Eight subjects refused to join the study for poor diet palatability, leaving 32 patients (19 males, mean age 50 years), with abnormal measures of liver function who agreed to adhere to a vegan diet for six months. The caloric intake was tailored by the dietitian to obtain a weight loss ≥5% of body weight in overweight patients [body-mass index (BMI) ≥25] and ranged from 1500 Kcal to 1800 Kcal. Patients were contacted monthly by phone to reinforce diet and lifestyle advice and were seen at the gastrointestinal clinic when doubtful about diet advice. Results: At six-month follow-up, 6 subjects did not attend the clinic leaving only 26 patients for data analysis. Initial anthropometric values were mean weight 78 kg (range 52-95), mean body mass index (BMI) 26.8 Kg/m2 (range 20.3-31.2). Liver function tests showed mean ALT value 99 U/L (SD±45), mean AST value 54 U/L (SD±44), mean GGT value 160 U/L (SD±122), pre-treatment. After six months mean body weight was 73 Kg (range 52-87), mean BMI was 25.2 Kg/m2 (range 20.3-29.7) (p

Purpose Faecal incontinence (FI) is estimated to affect around 7.7% of people. There is a lack of uniformity in outcome definitions, measurement and reporting in FI studies. Until now, there is no general consensus on which outcomes should be assessed and reported in FI research. This complicates comparison between studies and evidence synthesis, potentially leading to recommendations not evidence-based enough to guide physicians in selecting an FI therapy. A solution for this lack of uniformity in reporting of outcomes is the development of a Core Outcome Set (COS) for FI. This paper describes the protocol for the development of a European COS for FI. Methods Patient interviews and a systematic review of the literature will be performed to identify patient-, physician- and researcher-oriented outcomes. The outcomes will be categorised using the COMET taxonomy and put forward to a group of patients, physicians (i.e. colorectal surgeons, gastroenterologists and general practitioners) and researchers in a Delphi consensus exercise. This exercise will consist of up to three web-based rounds in which participants will prioritise and condense the list of outcomes, which is expected to result in consensus. A consensus meeting with participants from all stakeholder groups will take place to reach a final agreement on the COS. Discussion This study protocol describes the development of a European COS to improve reliability and consistency of outcome reporting in FI studies, thereby improving evidence synthesis and patient care. Trial registration This project has been registered in the COMET database on the 1st of April 2020, available at http://www.comet-initiative.org/Studies/Details/1554. The systematic review has been registered on the PROSPERO database on the 31st of August 2020, available at https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/display_record.php?RecordID=202020&VersionID=1381336.

The prescribing and use of opioid analgesics is increasing in Italy owing to a profusion in the number and types of opioid analgesic products available, and the increasing prevalence of conditions associated with severe pain, the latter being related to population aging. Herein we provide the expert opinion of an Italian multidisciplinary panel on the management of opioid-induced constipation (OIC) and bowel dysfunction. OIC and opioid-induced bowel dysfunction are well-recognised unwanted effects of treatment with opioid analgesics that can profoundly affect quality of life. OIC can be due to additional factors such as reduced mobility, a low-fibre diet, comorbidities, and concomitant medications. Fixed-dose combinations of opioids with mu (μ) opioid receptor antagonists, such as oxycodone/naloxone, have become available, but have limited utility in clinical practice because the individual components cannot be independently titrated, creating a risk of breakthrough pain as the dose is increased. A comprehensive prevention and management strategy for OIC should include interventions that aim to improve fibre and fluid intake, increase mobility or exercise, and restore bowel function without compromising pain control. Recommended first-line pharmacological treatment of OIC is with an osmotic laxative (preferably polyethylene glycol [macrogol]), or a stimulant laxative such as an anthraquinone. A second laxative with a complementary mechanism of action should be added in the event of an inadequate response. Second-line treatment with a peripherally acting μ opioid receptor antagonist (PAMORA), such as methylnaltrexone, naloxegol or naldemedine, should be considered in patients with OIC that has not responded to combination laxative treatment. Prokinetics or intestinal secretagogues, such as lubiprostone, may be appropriate in the third-line setting, but their use in OIC is off-label in Italy, and should therefore be restricted to settings such as specialist centres and clinical trials. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12325-021-01766-y.

Crohn’s disease (CD) is a chronic inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) which can affect any part of the whole gastrointestinal tract (from mouth to anus). Malnutrition affects 65–75% of CD patients, and it is now well acknowledged that diet is of paramount importance in the management of the disease. In this review, we would like to highlight the most recent findings in the field of nutrition for the treatment of CD. Our analysis will cover a wide range of topics, from the well-established diets to the new nutritional theories, along with the recent progress in emerging research fields, such as nutrigenomics.

Functional anorectal pain syndromes are a neglected yet often disabling clinical entity resulting in significant economic and psychological burden to the patient. The aim of this review is to update the practicing gastroenterologist/coloproctologist on the diagnosis and management of these complicated disorders. The updated Rome foundation diagnostic criteria (Rome IV) for functional anorectal pain subgroups chronic proctalgia (levator ani syndrome and unspecified functional anorectal pain) and acute proctalgia (proctalgia fugax) on the basis of symptom duration and digital rectal examination findings. Chronic proctalgia is thought to be secondary to paradoxical pelvic floor contraction in many patients and biofeedback to improve the defecation effort has proven effective for over 90% in the short term. Unfortunately, management of proctalgia fugax remains challenging and treatment outcomes modest at best. A number of therapies to relax the pelvic floor may be employed to improve symptoms in functional anorectal pain syndromes; however, only biofeedback to improve defaecatory dynamics in patients with levator ani syndrome has proven effectiveness in a randomized setting. Further investigation of treatment approaches in proctalgia fugax is required.

Anorectal manometry (ARM) is the most established investigative tool to detect functional diseases of anal sphincter and/or rectoanal coordination. It allows to evaluate the pressure of the anal canal and the distal rectum, providing motor and sensory information on functional phases of defecation and continence of the anorectal tract and of the pelvic floor muscles. Manometric examination allows to recognize multiple mechanisms underlying several frequent anorectal diseases such as fecal incontinence, chronic constipation, and chronic proctalgia. It is also useful in the preoperative and postoperative evaluations of patients with anorectal disease and provides multiple indications for rehabilitation programs through the biofeedback therapy. The integrity of anal sphincter function is assessed evaluating the resting sphincter pressure, the functional length of the anal canal, and squeeze sphincter pressure and the integrity of neural reflex pathway by measurement of anocutaneous reflex, cough reflex, and rectoanal inhibitory reflex (RAIR). Rectal sensitivity and rectal compliance are assessed using a balloon distention filled with air or water. ARM should be performed in conjunction with a balloon expulsion test (BET) that is used to evaluate the patient’s ability to evacuate a stool surrogate. Recently, an advanced high-resolution anorectal manometry (HRAM) has been introduced. It allows a more intuitive evaluation of the anorectal function without the need for pull-through of the catheter; however, the high costs of the technology still strongly limit its diffusion and therefore its use in clinical practice.

Prompt diagnosis in the emergency department in the case of a patient with emesis may be difficult due to the increasing prevalence of diseases which manifest with emesis. Furthermore, in the case of chronic symptomatology, management and therapy are even more complicated. One episode of emesis rarely causes complications, but severe or repetitive episodes of emesis can cause life-threatening complications. For this reason, the diagnosis of the underlying disease which manifests with emesis is mandatory to be established in a short time in order to choose the correct therapeutic option. In order to systemize the process of diagnosis, this clinical narrative review will discuss only rare causes of emesis.

This chapter addresses the pathophysiology, diagnostic evaluation, and treatment of pelvic-pain syndromes: chronic proctalgia (CP), proctalgia fugax, coccygodynia, and pudendal neuralgia. Chronic or recurrent pain in the anorectal area is a prevalent disorder affecting approximately 7% of the population and it is associated with impaired quality of life and a high economic burden. These pain syndromes are poorly understood with little evidence available to guide their diagnosis and treatment. However, a recently published randomized, controlled trial comparing biofeedback, electrogalvanic stimulation, and massage for the treatment of CP has shown success rates of 85% for biofeedback when patients are selected based on evidence of tenderness of the levator ani muscle and outlet dysfunction, both of which are suggestive of striated muscle tension. Overly tense pelvic-floor muscles appear to be common to most of the pelvic pain syndromes, therefore similar approaches to diagnostic assessment and treatment may improve outcomes in other pelvic-pain disorders.

Pelvic floor rehabilitation is frequently recommended for defecation disorders, in both constipation and fecal incontinence. However, the lack of patient selection, together with the variety of rehabilitation methods and protocols, often jeopardize the results of this approach, causing difficulty in evaluating outcomes and addressing proper management, and above all, in obtaining scientific evidence for the efficacy of these methods for specific indications. The authors represent different gastroenterological and surgical scientific societies in Italy, and their aim was to identify the indications and agree on treatment protocols for pelvic floor rehabilitation of patients with defecation disorders. This was achieved by means of a modified Delphi method, utilizing a working team (10 members) which developed the statements and a consensus group (15 members, different from the previous ones) which voted twice also suggesting modifications of the statements.

Chronic constipation is a prevalent disorder with considerable impact on healthcare costs and quality of life. Most patients would respond to conservative measures in primary care. Patients with refractory constipation are commonly referred to dedicated centers for appropriate investigations and management. After testing, three main subtypes of constipation are commonly identified: normal colon transit, slow transit, and functional defecation disorders. The etiology of functional defecation disorders is consistent with maladaptive behavior, and biofeedback therapy has been considered a valuable treatment option. Being safe and only marginally invasive, retraining has been historically employed to manage all types of refractory constipation. There are a number of strongly held beliefs about biofeedback therapy that are not evidence-based. The aim of this review was to address these beliefs concerning protocols, efficacy, indications, and safety, with a special focus on the relevance of identifying patients with a functional defecation disorder who are ideal candidates for retraining. Randomized controlled trials support the effectiveness of biofeedback therapy for severe, refractory constipation due to functional defecation disorders. Limitations of the treatment are discussed, but biofeedback remains the safest option to successfully manage this hard-to-treat subtype of constipation.

This chapter deals with the epidemiology, aetiology, diagnosis and management of these chronic perineal pain syndromes, with the significant addition of the post-proctectomy pain syndrome. Pudendal neuralgia refers to a chronic perineal pain syndrome due to entrapment and injury of the pudendal nerve in its muscolo-osteo-aponeurotic tunnel between the sacrotuberal and sacrospinal ligaments in the absence of organic diseases that may explain symptoms. Patients with severe and frequently recurring proctalgia fugax symptoms are likely to consult for a surgical procedure in an effort to solve the problem. No single treatment has been reported to be consistently effective in chronic proctalgia, and management can be a frustrating endeavour for both patients and physicians. Patients with proctalgia fugax are usually asymptomatic during consultation, and diagnosis relies heavily on eliciting a detailed clinical history. Diagnosis of coccygodynia relies heavily on the history and clinical exam. Coccygodynia may be of idiopathic origin or secondary to lumbar disc degeneration.

Introduction and aim The popularity of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM) in treating functional gastrointestinal disorders (FGIDs) has steadily increased in Western countries. We aimed at analyzing available data on CAM effectiveness in functional dyspepsia (FD) patients. Methods A bibliographical search was performed in PubMed using the following keywords: “complementary/alternative medicine,” “hypnosis,” “acupuncture” and/or “functional dyspepsia.” Results In community settings, almost 50% of patients with FGIDs used CAM therapies. Herbal remedies consist of multi-component preparations, whose mechanisms of action have not been systematically clarified. Few studies analyzed the effectiveness of acupuncture in Western countries, yielding conflicting results and possibly reflecting a population bias of this treatment. Hypnosis has been extensively used in irritable bowel syndrome, but few data support its role in treating FD. Conclusions Although some supporting well-designed studies have been recently performed, additional randomized, controlled trials are needed before stating any recommendation on CAM effectiveness in treating FD.

Chronic constipation (CC) is an extremely common condition with an estimated prevalence of up to 24%. Most patients with CC should be treated in primary care. Changes in lifestyle, including increased intake of dietary fibre, fluid, and exercise, should be attempted in most patients. Osmotic or stimulant laxatives are indicated if there are insufficient effects of lifestyle changes. Prokinetics and secretagogues should be restricted to those not responding to basic treatment. Anorectal physiology tests and assessment of colorectal transit time are indicated if medical treatment fails or if symptoms indicate severely obstructed defecation. If symptoms indicate an underlying structural disorder, barium or magnetic resonance evacuation proctography is indicated. Biofeedback therapy is effective in patients with dyssynergic defecation. In patients with other evacuation disorders, rectally administered laxatives or transanal irrigation should be attempted. Surgery is restricted to the minority of CC patients with very severe symptoms not responding to conservative treatment.

Intramural hematoma of the esophagus is a rare injury causing esophageal mucosal dissection. Forceful vomiting and coagulopathy are common underlying causes in the elderly population taking antiplatelets or anticoagulation agents. Acute retrosternal pain followed by hematemesis and dysphagia differentiates the hematoma from other cardiac or thoracic emergencies, including acute myocardial infarction or aortic dissection. Direct inspection by endoscopy is useful, but chest computed tomography best assesses the degree of obliteration of the lumen and excludes other differential diagnoses. Intramural hematoma of the esophagus is generally benign and most patients recover fully with conservative treatment. Bleeding can be managed medically unless in hemodynamically unstable patients, for whom surgical or angiographic treatment may be attempted; only rarely esophageal obstruction requires endoscopic decompression. We report an unusual case of esophageal hematoma, presenting in a young preeclamptic woman after surgical delivery of a preterm twin pregnancy, with a favorable outcome following medical management.

Background & Aims The balloon evacuation test (BET) measures the time required to evacuate a balloon filled with 50 mL water; it has been incorporated into many algorithms for diagnosis of pelvic floor dyssynergia. We aimed to assess the reproducibility of the BET, determine the upper limit of normal, and assess its concordance with evaluation of pelvic floor dyssynergia by anorectal manometry (ARM) and pelvic floor surface electromyography (EMG). Methods The BET was tested in 286 consecutive patients with chronic constipation (mean age, 44 years; 91% female) before and after 30 days of conservative treatment at a tertiary gastroenterology clinic in Italy from March 2010 through May 2012. The BET was tested twice, 7 days apart, in 40 healthy individuals (controls: mean age, 38 years; 92% female). The 238 constipated patients who responded incompletely to conservative therapy were examined by ARM, EMG, and digital rectal examination. Forty-seven patients with conflicting ARM and BET results underwent defecography. Results The balloon was evacuated within 1 minute by 37 controls (93%; 3 individuals required 1–2 minutes). Among patients with constipation, 148 (52%) passed the balloon within 5 minutes (110 passed the balloon in 1 minute, 35 passed it in 1–2 minutes, and 3 passed it in 2–5 minutes). The BET showed perfect reproducibility in 280 of the patients with constipation (98%) when a time less than 2 minutes was set as abnormal. The level of agreement between BET and ARM for dyssynergia was 78%, and between BET and EMG it was 83%. Thirty-two patients had abnormal results from the BET but normal results from ARM; 31 cases had inadequate straining (n = 11) or anatomic defects (n = 20), which could account for the abnormal findings from BET. Conclusions The BET is reliable for analysis of pelvic floor dyssynergia; the optimal upper limit of normal is 2 minutes. Findings from the BET have a high level of agreement with those from ARM and EMG.

Background This study aimed to objectively investigate whether the addition of polydextrose to sterilized probiotic containing Lactobacillus helveticus will confer benefits to constipation-predominant irritable bowel syndrome patients. Methods A total of 163 patients were randomized into two groups: Group A to consume 350 mL of sterilized probiotic with 5.85 g polydextrose daily for 1 week and Group B without polydextrose. Intestinal transit time, fecal pH, fecal weight, and modified Garrigues questionnaires for pre- and post-consumption were assessed. Results Median intestinal transit time was significantly reduced from 58 (IQR 43–72) to 45 (IQR 24–59) hours and 48 (IQR 31–72) to 30 (IQR 24–49) hours for Groups A and B, respectively (p

Chronic constipation (CC) is widely prevalent in the Western world, with a significant negative impact on quality of life, yet new and effective pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatment options have only recently emerged. The article by Tack and colleagues in the current issue of NGM is timely with the recent introduction of the serotonin type 4 receptor agonist prucalopride in Europe and wider acceptance of anorectal biofeedback for patients with pelvic floor dyssynergia. This Editorial (i) highlights the importance of identifying patients with pelvic floor dysfunction who are candidates for pelvic floor retraining programs and (ii) discusses the potential limitations of the 5-HT4 agonist, prucalopride, as an early option in the treatment algorithm for CC.

Biofeedback is a form of treatment that has no adverse effects and can be provided by physician extenders. The therapy relies on patients' ability to learn how to influence their bodily functions through dedicated machinery and teaching. This Review provides a comprehensive overview of all potential therapeutic applications of biofeedback for functional constipation, fecal incontinence, functional anorectal pain, IBS, functional dyspepsia, and aerophagia. Practical clinical applications of biofeedback therapy supported by randomized, controlled trials (RCTs) are limited to fecal incontinence and dyssynergic defecation. For fecal incontinence, RCTs suggest that biofeedback combining strength training and sensory discrimination training is effective in approximately 75% of patients and is more effective than placebo. However, verbal feedback provided by a therapist during extended digital examination may be equally effective, and children whose fecal incontinence is associated with constipation plus fecal impaction do no better with biofeedback than medical management. For dyssynergic defecation, RCTs show that biofeedback combining pelvic floor muscle relaxation training, practice in defecating a water-filled balloon, and instruction in effective straining is effective in approximately 70% of patients who have failed to respond to laxative treatment. For both incontinence and dyssynergic defecation, the benefits of biofeedback last at least 12 months.

Constipation is a frequently reported bowel symptom in the elderly with considerable impact on quality of life and health expenses. Disease-related morbidity and even mortality have been reported in the affected frail elderly. Although constipation is not a physiologic consequence of normal aging, decreased mobility, medications, underlying diseases, and rectal sensory-motor dysfunction may all contribute to its increased prevalence in older adults. In the elderly there is usually more than one etiologic mechanism, requiring a multifactorial treatment approach. The majority of patients would respond to diet and lifestyle modifications reinforced by bowel training measures. In those not responding to conservative treatment, the approach needs to be tailored addressing all comorbid conditions. In the adult population, the management of constipation continues to evolve as well as the understanding of its complex etiology. However, the constipated elderly have been left behind while gastroenterology consultations for this common conditions are at a rise for the worldwide age increment. Aim of this review is to provide an update on epidemiology, quality of life burden, etiology, diagnosis, current approaches and limitations in the management of constipation in the older ones to ease the gastroenterologists' clinic workload.

Chronic constipation is a common, benign condition with considerable impact on health expenses and quality of life [1]. The majority of patients usually respond to diet and lifestyle modifications or to judicious use of laxatives; among the non-responders, outlet dysfunction-type constipation seems particularly common, affecting up to 50 % of patients referred to tertiary care centers [1]. Most of these patients will show feature of dyssynergic defecation (i.e., paradoxical contraction or failure to relax the pelvic floor and anal muscles during defecation) leading to inadequate emptying of the rectum [2]. Dyssynergic defecation is thought to be a maladaptive learned behavior, since usually no identifiable neurological or anatomical defect is found, and the condition has been found to resolve after patients undergo behavioral training [3]. Biofeedback therapy to teach effective defecation effort has been extensively used in obstructed defecation syndrome [1]. However, the scientific evidence favoring biofeedback over conservative treatment for dyssynergic defecation has been controversial up to the past decade [1]. Major obstacles when assessing meaningful literature were the huge variety of inclusion and outcome criteria, follow-up intervals, and therapeutic protocols [3]. Recently, three randomized control trials (RCTs) have proven that biofeedback is an effective treatment for dyssynergic defecation when compared to placebo, laxatives (including macrogol), and muscle relaxant drugs [2, 4]. However, generalization of results was hampered by patient selection, rigid outcome criteria, and the administration of therapy by highly specialized referral centers, focused on dyssynergic defecation [2, 3]. Moreover, it was unclear whether the positive outcome reported by some authors was related to the expertise of the care providers [2, 3]. Some of these limitations have been effectively addressed by the RCT study appearing in this issue that compared augmented biofeedback therapy for dyssynergic defecation to scheduled counselling sessions [5]. Randomization was well designed, without excluding patients with slow transit constipation. Another point worth mentioning is the inclusion of patients who had previously undergone ineffective surgery for obstructed defecation, as in ‘‘real life’’. This also prompts a word of caution about the surgical options in this disabled group of patients. The number of treatment sessions chosen (six) is likely to be cost-effective at any center. The choice of outcome criteria is optimal for the surgical and the gastroenterological audience, for the Wexner score is one of the most commonly used scoring systems to assess outcomes and sound data about the efficacy of biofeedback therapy on improving quality of life (QOL) scores are lacking. Finally, behavioral treatment has been provided in a surgical center, likely more focused on invasive treatment options. Nonetheless, augmented biofeedback has been clearly shown to be more effective than control treatment in improving symptoms and QOL scores in constipation secondary to dyssynergic defecation. Unfortunately, anorectal testing follow-up did not include evaluation of defecation behavior to confirm whether the effectiveness of biofeedback therapy is related to restored physiology. It is unclear, as the authors honestly acknowledge, whether augmented biofeedback therapy is & G. Bassotti gabassot@tin.it

Anorectal disorders such as dyssynergic defecation, fecal incontinence, levator ani syndrome, and solitary rectal ulcer syndrome are common, and affect both the adult and pediatric populations. Although they are treated with several treatment approaches, over the last two decades, biofeedback therapy using visual and verbal feedback techniques has emerged as an useful option. Because it is safe, it is commonly recommended. However, the clinical efficacy of biofeedback therapy in adults and children is not clearly known, and there is a lack of critical appraisal of the techniques used and the outcomes of biofeedback therapy for these disorders. The American Neurogastroenterology and Motility Society and the European Society of Neurogastroenterology and Motility convened a task force to examine the indications, study performance characteristics, methodologies used, and the efficacy of biofeedback therapy, and to provide evidence-based recommendations. Based on the strength of evidence, biofeedback therapy is recommended for the short-term and long-term treatment of constipation with dyssynergic defecation (Level I, Grade A), and for the treatment of fecal incontinence (Level II, Grade B). Biofeedback therapy may be useful in the short-term treatment of Levator Ani Syndrome with dyssynergic defecation (Level II, Grade B), and solitary rectal ulcer syndrome with dyssynergic defecation (Level III, Grade C), but the evidence is fair. Evidence does not support the use of biofeedback for the treatment of childhood constipation (Level 1, Grade D)

Pelvic floor dyssynergia is one of the commonest subtypes of constipation, and the conventional treatment (dietary fibre and laxatives) is often unsatisfactory. Recently biofeedback training has been introduced as an alternative treatment. The authors review the evidence for this approach and conclude that, although controlled studies are few and open to criticism, about two thirds of patients with pelvic floor dyssynergia should benefit from biofeedback training Chronic constipation is a common self reported gastrointestinal problem that affects between 2% and 34% of adults in various populations studied. Among the subtypes of constipation, obstructed defecation seems particularly common, occurring in about 7% of the adult population.1 In most people with this conditionan inappropriate (paradoxical) contraction or a failed relaxation of the puborectal muscle and of the external anal sphincter often occurs during attempts to defecate (fig 1). This paradoxical contraction of the pelvic floor muscles during straining at defecation is considered a form of maladaptive learning and is generally defined (without specifying the underlying pathophysiological mechanism) as outlet dysfunction constipation or, more precisely, pelvic floor dyssynergia.2 Fig 1 Anorectal manometric tracings of a normal subject (upper tracing) and a patient with pelvic floor dyssynergia (lower tracing) during straining at defecation (arrows). Note that the normal subject relaxes the anal sphincter, whereas the patient displays a paradoxical contraction of the sphincter Cardinal symptoms of pelvic floor dyssynergia are straining at stools and feelings of incomplete evacuation, and the diagnostic criteria, recently updated in the Rome II report, include those for functional constipation (see box)3 plus at least two out of three investigations (radiology, manometry, and electromyography) showing inappropriate contraction or failure to relax the pelvic floor muscles during attempts to defecate.2 #### Summary points Obstructed defecation is a common subtype of constipation that may not be responsive to treatment with laxatives and dietary …

Bloating is one of the most common and bothersome symptoms complained by a large proportion of patients. This symptom has been described with various definitions, such as sensation of a distended abdomen or an abdominal tension or even excessive gas in the abdomen, although bloating should probably be defined as the feeling (e.g. a subjective sensation) of increased pressure within the abdomen. It is usually associated with functional gastrointestinal disorders, like irritable bowel syndrome, but when bloating is not part of another functional bowel or gastrointestinal disorder it is included as an independent entity in Rome III criteria named functional bloating. In terms of diagnosis, major difficulties are due to the lack of measurable parameters to assess and grade this symptom. In addition, it is still unclear to what extent the individual patient complaint of subjective bloating correlates with the objective evidence of abdominal distension. In fact, despite its clinical, social and economic relevance, bloating lacks a clear pathophysiology explanation, and an effective management endorsement, turning this common symptom into a true challenge for both patients and clinicians. Different theories on bloating etiology call into questions an increased luminal contents (gas, stools, liquid or fat) and/or an impaired abdominal empting and/or an altered intra-abdominal volume displacement (abdomino-phrenic theory) and/or an increased perception of intestinal stimuli with a subsequent use of empirical treatments (diet modifications, antibiotics and/or probiotics, prokinetic drugs, antispasmodics, gas reducing agents and tricyclic antidepressants). In this review, our aim was to review the latest knowledge on bloating physiopathology and therapeutic options trying to shed lights on those processes where a clinician could intervene to modify disease course.

Objective To evaluate anorectal and colonic function in a group of patients with anorexia nervosa complaining of chronic constipation. Patients and Methods Twelve women (age range, 19-29 years) meeting the criteria for anorexia nervosa and complaining of chronic constipation were recruited for the study. A group of 12 healthy women served as controls. Colonic transit time was measured by a radiopaque marker technique. Anorectal manometry and a test of rectal sensation were carried out with use of standard techniques to measure pelvic floor dysfunction. A subgroup of 8 patients was retested after an adequate refeeding program was completed. Results Eight (66.7%) of 12 patients with anorexia nervosa had slow colonic transit times, while 5 (41.7%) had pelvic floor dysfunction. Colonic transit time normalized in the 8 patients who completed the 4-week refeeding program. However, pelvic floor dysfunction did not normalize in these patients. Conclusions Patients with anorexia nervosa who complain of constipation have anorectal motor abnormali­ties. Delayed colonic transit time is probably due to abnor­mal eating behavior.

Background: Chronic constipation is a frequent symptom among the general population, and a minority of cases do not respond to any therapeutic measures, except surgery. The purpose of this study was to test the residual colonic motor propulsive activity with a pharmacologic stimulus in a series of patients referred for severe constipation. Patients: Twenty-five chronically constipated patients, slow transit type, age range 16–71 years, unresponsive to conventional medical treatment and referred for functional evaluation, entered the study. Methods: Colonic manometry by means of an endoscopically positioned probe was carried out in all patients. Following a basal recording period, a placebo solution followed by 10 mg bisacodyl solution was infused into the colon through the more proximal recording port. Results: After bisacodyl infusion, about 90% of patients showed a motor response characterized by the appearance (within on average 13 ± 3 min) of one or more high-amplitude propagated contractions, the manometric equivalent of mass movements, and about 75% of these were followed (mean 18.5 ± 4 min) by defecation. Conclusions: Physiological and pharmacological testing of colonic motor activity may be important in severely constipated patients, especially in those labeled as ‘intractable’, in whom more in depth investigation planning may encourage further therapeutic efforts.

The mechanisms responsible for boweldisturbances in celiac disease are still relativelyunknown. Recent reports suggested that small bowel motorabnormalities may be involved in this pathologicalcondition; however, there are no studies addressing smallbowel transit in celiac disease before and after agluten-free diet. We studied the mouth-to-cecum transittime of a caloric liquid meal in a homogeneous group of celiac patients presenting with clinical andbiochemical evidence of malabsorption and complaining ofdiarrhea. Sixteen patients were recruited andinvestigated by means of hydrogen breath test through ingestion of 20 g lactulose together with anenteral gluten-free diet formula. A urinary D-xylosetest was also done in each patient. Both breath testsand D-xylose tests were carried out basally and after a period of gluten-free diet. Twenty healthyvolunteers were recruited as a control group andunderwent the same breath testing. At the time of thediagnosis, mouth-to-cecum transit time was significantly prolonged in celiacs with respect to controls(243 ± 10 vs 117 ± 6 min, P = 0.0001). TheD-xylose test was also abnormal (average urinaryconcentration 2.8 ± 0.25 g, normal values>4.5). No correlation was found in patients between mouth-to-cecum transit timeand urinary D-xylose output (r = 0.22). After thegluten-free diet period, mouth-tocecum transit time inceliacs was significantly reduced compared to prediet transit (134 ± 8 vs 243 ± 10 min,P = 0.0001) and did not show statistical difference whencompared to that found in controls (P = 0.1). TheD-xylose test reverted to normal in all but twosubjects, who were found to be noncompliant with the diet.Mouth-to-cecum transit time is significantly prolongedin patients affected by untreated celiac disease whencompared to healthy controls. This alteration might notbe correlated to intestinal malabsorption, and theprolonged orocecal transit could be due to impairedsmall bowel function (deranged motility?). Sinceintestinal transit returned to normal values after an adequate gluten-free period, a link with severeactive mucosal lesions is suggestive.

BackgroundThe pathophysiological mechanisms underlining constipation are incompletely understood, but prolonged bed rest is commonly considered a relevant determinant.AimsOur primary aim was to study the effect of long-term physical inactivity on determining a new onset of constipation. Secondary aim were the evaluation of changes in stool frequency, bowel function and symptoms induced by this prolonged physical inactivity.MethodsTen healthy men underwent a 7-day run-in followed by 35-day study of experimentally-controlled bed rest. The study was sponsored by the Italian Space Agency. The onset of constipation was evaluated according to Rome III criteria for functional constipation. Abdominal bloating, flatulence, pain and urgency were assessed by a 100mm Visual Analog Scales and bowel function by adjectival scales (Bristol Stool Form Scale, ease of passage of stool and sense of incomplete evacuation). Daily measurements of bowel movements was summarized on a weekly score. Pre and post bed rest Quality of Life (SF-36), general health (Goldberg's General Health) and depression mood (Zung scale) questionnaires were administered.ResultsNew onset of functional constipation fulfilling Rome III criteria was found in 60% (6/10) of participants (p=0.03). The score of flatulence significantly increased whilst the stool frequency significantly decreased during the week-by-week comparisons period (repeated-measures ANOVA, p=0.02 and p=0.001, respectively). Stool consistency and bowel symptoms were not influenced by prolonged physical inactivity. In addition, no significant changes were observed in general health, in mood state and in quality of life at the end of bed rest.ConclusionsOur results provide evidence that prolonged physical inactivity is relevant etiology in functional constipation in healthy individuals. The common clinical suggestion of early mobilization in bedridden patients is supported as well.

In this issue Dr Camilleri provides an important critique of the use of the Rome III criteria for functional constipation as inclusion criteria for clinical trials of new drugs or other therapies for chronic constipation. He points out that the Rome criteria for functional constipation require the presence of any two of six symptoms, some of which are suggestive of slow transit (e.g. less than three stools per week, hard or lumpy stools) and some of which are suggestive of evacuatory dysfunction (e.g. straining, sensation of anorectal blockage, and manual maneuvers to facilitate defecation). He reminds us that recent studies suggest that patients with evacuation disorders show a poor response to laxatives and suggests that, consequently, the use of inclusion/exclusion criteria that do not distinguish among subtypes of constipation may lead to an underestimation of the efficacy of new therapeutic agents with a mechanism of action similar to laxatives and to an overestimation of the sample sizes required to adequately power clinical trials. He ends by proposing alternative symptom criteria for clinical trials based on the presence of key symptoms of infrequent stools and hard or lumpy stool consistency, combined with the absence of excessive straining and manual maneuvers to facilitate defecation. This is a valid concern: inclusion criteria based only on the Rome III criteria for functional constipation will inevitably result in the inclusion of a heterogeneous group of patients with constipation. However, one should be cautious about embracing new symptom criteria before evaluating their sensitivity and specificity for discriminating patients with disordered defecatio from patients with other types of chronic constipation. The comments below begin with an explanation of the rationale behind the Rome III symptom criteria for functional constipation, including comments on why the Rome criteria for functional constipation are different for children and adolescents compared with adults. Then we summarize published evidence suggesting that the new symptom criteria proposed by Dr Camilleri have only modest sensitivity and specificity and may require further testing to make sure they will achieve the objective of reducing the heterogeneity of study populations in clinical trials.

The motor and sensory function of the anorectum is well characterised in patients with solid stool incontinence. Fewer data are available in the case of liquid stool incontinence. Anorectal sensorimotor function was studied in 16 patients with liquid stool incontinence and severe urgency (10 with diarrhoea) unresponsive to conventional medical treatment, and in 16 healthy volunteers. The only significant difference found between incontinent patients and controls was a reduction in squeeze duration (p < 0.0001). Fourteen patients were selected to receive biofeedback treatment. Treatment was associated with a substantial improvement in continence in 12 patients and with a significant decrease in urgency (p < 0.05). Bowel frequency was not significantly influenced. Most patients showed a persistent improvement in anal motor function. Functional parameters were not predictive of outcome of treatment; the poor responders showed major psychological problems. In conclusion, an anal motor deficit is often present in disabling liquid stool incontinence. Biofeedback may improve anal continence in 75% of patients.

Abnormal gastrointestinal function is relatively frequent in Parkinson's disease, and constipation is a disturbing symptom in many patients. However, it remains to be established whether anorectal abnormalities are characteristic of the late stages of the disease. Clinical and anorectal manometric function were investigated in groups of early and late stage parkinsonian patients. Thirty one patients (19 men, 12 women, age range 22 to 89 years) entered the study. The disease severity was assessed by Hoehn and Yahr staging: there were four (12.9%) stage I, seven (22.6%) stage II, 10 (32.2%) stage III, and 10 (32.2%) stage IV patients. Anorectal variables were measured by standard manometric equipment and techniques. Values obtained in early stage patients (Hoehn and Yahr stage I and II) were compared with those obtained in late stage patients (Hoehn and Yahr stage III and IV). Overall, more than 70% of patients complained of chronic constipation, with chronic laxative use reported in more than 30%. Late stage patients were slightly older than their early stage counterparts. Pelvic floor dyssynergia was documented in more than 60% of patients. Manometric variables were not different in the two groups. In conclusion, defecatory dysfunction is frequent in Parkinson's disease, it is not confined to late stage patients, and it is found early in the course of the disease. This has potential implications for a targeted therapeutic approach.

Background & Aims Levator ani syndrome (LAS) might be treated using biofeedback to teach pelvic floor relaxation, electrogalvanic stimulation (EGS), or massage of levator muscles. We performed a prospective, randomized controlled trial to compare the effectiveness of these techniques and assess physiologic mechanisms for treatment. Methods Inclusion criteria were Rome II symptoms plus weekly pain. Patients were categorized as "highly likely" to have LAS if they reported tenderness with traction on the levator muscles or as "possible" LAS if they did not. All 157 patients received 9 sessions including psychologic counseling plus biofeedback, EGS, or massage. Outcomes were reassessed at 1, 3, 6, and 12 months. Results Among patients with "highly likely" LAS, adequate relief was reported by 87% for biofeedback, 45% for EGS, and 22% for massage. Pain days per month decreased from 14.7 at baseline to 3.3 after biofeedback, 8.9 after EGS, and 13.3 after massage. Pain intensity decreased from 6.8 (0–10 scale) at baseline to 1.8 after biofeedback, 4.7 after EGS, and 6.0 after massage. Improvements were maintained for 12 months. Patients with only a "possible" diagnosis of LAS did not benefit from any treatment. Biofeedback and EGS improved LAS by increasing the ability to relax pelvic floor muscles and evacuate a water-filled balloon and by reducing the urge and pain thresholds. Conclusions Biofeedback is the most effective of these treatments, and EGS is somewhat effective. Only patients with tenderness on rectal examination benefit. The pathophysiology of LAS is similar to that of dyssynergic defecation.