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Infertility is a growing worldwide public health problem, and stress is a main factor exerting detrimental effects on female reproduction. However, knowledge regarding the neuroendocrine changes caused by chronic stress in females is limited. Therefore, this study assessed the effects of stress on hormones that control female reproduction during the proestrus and diestrus stages of the estrous cycle, as well as its effects on fertility. Adult females were assigned to either a control or a stress group. Stress consisted of exposure, for 15 min, to cold-water immersion daily for 30 days. Estrous cyclicity, female sexual behavior, as well as hypothalamic kisspeptin, gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) content, serum luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol (E2), progesterone (P4), corticosterone (CORT) and fertility were assessed after chronic stress. The results show that chronically stressed females exhibited disrupted estrous cyclicity, decreased receptivity, low pregnancy rates and lower numbers of fetuses. The content of Kisspeptin and GnRH in the Anteroventral Periventricular/medial Preoptic Area decreased during proestrus, while Kisspeptin increased in the Arcuate nucleus in proestrus and diestrus. Serum LH decreased only during proestrus, whereas E2 and P4 concentrations decreased during proestrus and diestrus, with a concomitant increase in CORT levels in both stages. As a whole, these results indicate that chronic stress decreases Kisspeptin content in AVPV nucleus and GnRH in POA in females, and might induce disruption of the LH surge, consequently disrupting estrous cyclicity and fertility, leading to lower rates of pregnancy and number of fetuses.

Background The emergence of assisted reproductive technology (ART) in humans has been an important tool for the treatment of infertility. The number of treatments performed in Latin America has been increasing, and Mexico is the third country with the most assisted reproduction cycles performed in the region. However, Mexico lacks a national regulation for assisted reproduction. Therefore, it is necessary to implement regulations that allow for a safe clinical practice based on ethics which can be available to any social group. Main body The aim of this review was to examine the existing legislation that regulates human assisted reproduction practices in Mexico, but also to examine the legal analysis of the policies, laws, and regulations in effect in some countries in Latin America, North America, and Europe. For this, seven databases were consulted, and 34 articles from 2004 to 2021 referring to the practice of ART within the legal framework and the anthropological analysis that this entails were analyzed. Eight documents were also consulted such as the Mexican General Health Law of the Official Journal of the Federation (February 7, 1984) with its last published reform (DOF 01-06-2021). And three official agency websites were also consulted. No specific legislation was found for human assisted reproduction practices in Mexico; however, assisted reproduction clinics are ruled under some agreements implemented by national organizations such as the Mexican Association of Reproductive Medicine and, at the Latin America level, the Latin America Network of Assisted Reproduction (abbreviated REDLARA in Spanish); in addition, the practice of ART is considered, although not explicitly, in the General Health Law. Conclusion In Mexico, there is no legal regulation in charge of assisted reproduction practices, which is why there is an urgent need to establish human assisted reproduction laws without incurring discriminatory and unconstitutional acts, and at the same time, be in accordance with scientific advances. This will allow a considerable reduction in the violation of human rights., Plain language summary The emergence of ART in humans has been an important tool for the treatment of infertility. It is reported that one in four couples in developing countries has fertility problems. In 2009, the International Committee for Monitoring Assisted Reproductive Technology (ICMART) established ART as "all treatments or procedures involving in vitro manipulation of oocytes, sperm or embryos for the purpose of establishing a pregnancy". The number of treatments performed in Latin America has been increasing, and Mexico is the third country with the most assisted reproduction cycles performed in the region. However, Mexico lacks a national regulation for human assisted reproduction. This has caused Mexico to become a medical tourism paradise, which increases the possibility of abuses, fraud, and clinical risks. In addition, it allows each institution offering assisted reproduction services, whether public or private, to establish arbitrary requirements for inclusion. Thus, the emergence of a regulation that allows a safe clinical practice based on ethics, which will also make this reproductive tool available to any social group, is a social need. Therefore, the aim of this review was to examine the existing legislation that regulates human assisted reproduction practices in Mexico, but also to examine the legal analysis of the policies, laws, and regulations in use in some countries in Latin America, North America, and Europe, as well as highlighting the importance of working on the establishment of regulations that allow for safe and ethically based clinical practices.

Background The evaluation of the DNA damage generated in cumulus cells after mature cumulus-oocyte complexes vitrification can be considered as an indicator of oocyte quality since these cells play important roles in oocyte developmental competence. Therefore, the aim of this study was to determine if matured cumulus-oocyte complexes exposure to cryoprotectants (CPAs) or vitrification affects oocytes and cumulus cells viability, but also if DNA damage is generated in cumulus cells, affecting fertilization and embryo development. Results The DNA damage in cumulus cells was measured using the alkaline comet assay and expressed as Comet Tail Length (CTL) and Olive Tail Moment (OTM). Results demonstrate that oocyte exposure to CPAs or vitrification reduced oocyte (75.5 ± 3.69%, Toxicity; 66.7 ± 4.57%, Vitrification) and cumulus cells viability (32.7 ± 5.85%, Toxicity; 7.7 ± 2.21%, Vitrification) compared to control (95.5 ± 4.04%, oocytes; 89 ± 4.24%, cumulus cells). Also, significantly higher DNA damage expressed as OTM was generated in the cumulus cells after exposure to CPAs and vitrification (39 ± 17.41, 33.6 ± 16.69, respectively) compared to control (7.4 ± 4.22). In addition, fertilization and embryo development rates also decreased after exposure to CPAs (35.3 ± 16.65%, 22.6 ± 3.05%, respectively) and vitrification (32.3 ± 9.29%, 20 ± 1%, respectively). It was also found that fertilization and embryo development rates in granulose-intact oocytes were significantly higher compared to denuded oocytes in the control groups. However, a decline in embryo development to the blastocyst stage was observed after CPAs exposure (1.66 ± 0.57%) or vitrification (2 ± 1%) compared to control (22.3 ± 2.51%). This could be attributed to the reduction in both cell types viability, and the generation of DNA damage in the cumulus cells. Conclusion This study demonstrates that oocyte exposure to CPAs or vitrification reduced viability in oocytes and cumulus cells, and generated DNA damage in the cumulus cells, affecting fertilization and embryo development rates. These findings will allow to understand some of the mechanisms of oocyte damage after vitrification that compromise their developmental capacity, as well as the search for new vitrification strategies to increase fertilization and embryo development rates by preserving the integrity of the cumulus cells.

Simple Summary Recently, a significant relationship between stress and reproductive failure in women was reported; being one of the possible causes of infertility. The World Health Organization recognizes infertility as a global public health issue; therefore, the interest in understanding the main causes of this issue has increased over the last few decades. Thus, many studies have reported that stress can adversely alter the functionality of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis; as well as being one of the reasons of subfertility in patients undergoing in vitro fertilization. Therefore, it can be assumed that stress is closely related to poor in vitro fertilization outcomes. In chronically stressed female rats, irregular estrous cyclicity, increased corticosterone levels, decreased oocyte viability, and increased percentage of abnormal oocytes were obtained in all estrous cycle phases, resulting in reduced oocyte maturation during proestrus. Oocyte maturation disturbed by chronic stress is a crucial factor by which chronic stress disrupts female reproduction. Abstract Background: Stress has been considered as one of the causes of decreased reproductive function in women. However, direct evidence of the effect of chronic stress on oocytes depending on estrous cycle phases is limited. Objective: The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of chronic stress on the viability, integrity, and maturation of rat oocytes depending on estrous cycle phases, specifically proestrus, estrus, and diestrus. Methods: For this purpose, adult female rats were stressed daily by cold water immersion (15 °C) for 30 consecutive days. Results: In chronically stressed female rats, irregular estrous cyclicity, increased corticosterone levels, decreased oocyte viability, and an increased percentage of abnormal oocytes were obtained in all the estrous cycle phases, resulting in reduced oocyte maturation during proestrus. Conclusion: Oocyte maturation disturbed by chronic stress is a crucial factor by which chronic stress disrupts female reproduction

Vitrification is mainly used to cryopreserve female gametes. This technique allows maintaining cell viability, functionality, and developmental potential at low temperatures into liquid nitrogen at −196°C. For this, the addition of cryoprotectant agents, which are substances that provide cell protection during cooling and warming, is required. However, they have been reported to be toxic, reducing oocyte viability, maturation, fertilization, and embryo development, possibly by altering cell cytoskeleton structure and chromatin. Previous studies have evaluated the effects of vitrification in the germinal vesicle, metaphase II oocytes, zygotes, and blastocysts, but the knowledge of its impact on their further embryo development is limited. Other studies have evaluated the role of actin microfilaments and chromatin, based on the fertilization and embryo development rates obtained, but not the direct evaluation of these structures in embryos produced from vitrified immature oocytes. Therefore, this study was designed to evaluate how the vitrification of porcine immature oocytes affects early embryo development by the evaluation of actin microfilament distribution and chromatin integrity. Results demonstrate that the damage generated by the vitrification of immature oocytes affects viability, maturation, and the distribution of actin microfilaments and chromatin integrity, observed in early embryos. Therefore, it is suggested that vitrification could affect oocyte repair mechanisms in those structures, being one of the mechanisms that explain the low embryo development rates after vitrification.

Vitrification may severely affect cumulus cells and oocyte morphology and viability, limiting their maturation and developmental potential. The aim of this study was to evaluate the gap junction intercellular communication (GJIC) integrity after the vitrification of porcine immature cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs). Fresh COCs were randomly distributed in three groups: untreated (control), toxicity (cryoprotectants exposure), and vitrification, then subjected to in vitro maturation (IVM). Oocyte viability and IVM were measured in all groups. The evaluation of GJIC was expressed as relative fluorescence intensity (RFI). Vitrification significantly decreased oocyte viability and maturation after 44 h of culture compared to control. Also, significantly reduced RFI was observed in vitrified COCs during the first hours of culture (4–8 h) compared to control. This study demonstrates that porcine oocyte viability and maturation after 44 h of culture decreased after vitrification. GJIC was also affected during the first hours of culture after the vitrification of immature oocytes, being one of the possible mechanisms by which oocyte maturation decreased.

Parabens (PBs) are compounds widely used in industry for food and personal care products as antimicrobials and preservatives. Their indiscriminate use has resulted in their detection in different ecosystems so that humans and other organisms are highly exposed. Methylparaben (MePB), compared with other PBs, is mostly detected in food, personal care and baby care products. PBs could be linked to the generation of hormonal disorders and fertility impairment since their recent classification as endocrine disruptors. The knowledge of the effects that MePB can exert is of great importance as, in terms of reproduction, information is limited. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to evaluate the effect of MePB on porcine oocyte viability and in vitro maturation (IVM), as well as to determine the lethal concentration at 50% (LC50 ) and the maturation inhibition concentration at 50% (MIC50 ). Oocytes were exposed to different MePB concentrations 0 (control), 50, 100, 500, 750 and 1000 μm during 44 h of IVM. Cytoplasmic alterations and reduced cumulus cell expansion were observed in oocytes exposed to MePB; however, viability was not affected. In addition, oocyte maturation decreased in a concentration-dependent manner after exposure to MePB. The estimated LC50 was 2028.38 μm, whereas MIC50 was 780.31 μm. To our knowledge, this is the first study that demonstrates that MePB altered porcine oocyte morphology, and caused a reduction in cumulus cell expansion, both of which resulted in decreased oocyte maturation. Therefore, MePB exposure may be one of the factors involved in fertility impairment in mammals, including that of humans.

Chronic stress induces decreased sperm motility, viability and concentration in stressed males. Also, stress modifies oxidative status and causes apoptosis in testes, as well as a decrease in the epithelial area of seminiferous tubules. However, there are no studies that analyze the alterations caused by stress in testicular cells. Thus, in this study, alterations in the morphology of testicular germ cells caused by different days of chronic stress were assessed. Adult male rats were exposed to stress by immersion in cold water (ICW) daily for 3, 8, 20 or 50 consecutive days. Plasma testosterone and corticosterone were also assessed. Results showed that chronic stress causes loss of germ cells, and alteration of spermatogenesis. Seminiferous tubules from stressed males showed several degenerative signs, such as vacuoles in the basal epithelium, with picnotic indicia; moderate to severe exfoliation of degenerative germinal cells in the tubule lumen was also observed. These alterations were observed in all days of stress in a gradual way, from day 3-50. Testosterone levels were decreased at all those times, and corticosterone concentrations were increased on the same days. These results show that chronic stress causes severe damage to germ cells, which can account for infertility problems in males. These alterations are related to a decrease in testosterone as well as an increase in corticosterone caused by stress.

Perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS) is one of the most abundant perfluorinated compounds in the environment. Exposure to this compound has been correlated to a decrease in human fertility, although the molecular and cellular mechanisms underlying this correlation have not been described. The adverse reproductive effects of PFHxS could be based on alterations in oocyte maturation, the process rendering oocytes competent for fertilization. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of PFHxS on porcine oocyte viability and maturation in vitro, as well as on gap-junctional intercellular communication (GJIC) in cumulus–oocyte complexes (COCs), oocyte mitochondrial membrane potential (mΔΨ) and DNA damage in cumulus cells, as possible mechanisms of action. PFHxS caused cytotoxicity (medium lethal concentration, LC50 = 329.1 μM) and inhibition of oocyte maturation (medium inhibitory concentration, MIC50 = 91.68 μM). GJIC was not affected in exposed COCs. However, the mitochondrial membrane potential was significantly decreased in PFHxS-exposed oocytes at the germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) stage. In addition, exposure to PFHxS induced DNA damage in cumulus cells. Thus, inhibition of oocyte maturation by PFHxS could be attributed to a decreased oocyte mΔΨ at the GVBD and to DNA damage of the cumulus cells that support the oocyte.

Background In order to improve ICSI, appropiate sperm selection and oocyte activation is necessary. The objective of the present study was to determine the efficiency of fertilization using ICSI with chemically activated ovine oocytes and sperm selected by swim up (SU) or swim up + zona pellucida (SU + ZP) binding. Results Experiment 1, 4–20 replicates with total 821 in vitro matured oocytes were chemically activated with ethanol, calcium ionophore or ionomycin, to determine oocyte activation (precense of one PN). Treatments showed similar results (54, 47, 42 %, respectively) but statistically differents (P 0.05). Conclusions Chemical activation induces higher ovine oocyte activation than mechanical activation. Ethanol slightly displays higher oocyte activation than calcium ionophore and ionomicine. Sperm selection with SU + ZP increased AR/A and AR/D rates in comparison with SU in fresh and frozen-thawed sperm. According to this, in terms of fertilization rates, chemical activation after ICSI increased oocyte PN formation compared to mechanical activation. Also, fresh sperm treated with SU and SU + ZP were significantly different than frozen-thawed sperm, but between sperm treatments no significant differences were obtained.

Background Most studies carried out to evaluate recovery and development after porcine oocyte vitrification, reported better rates when cryopreserved in embryonic development stages or zygotes, but not in immature oocytes. For this reason, many studies are performed to improve immature oocyte vitrification protocols testing the use of different cryoprotectant concentrations, cooling devices, incubation times; but only a few of them have evaluated which fertilization procedure enhances blastocyst rates in vitrified oocytes. Therefore, this study was aimed to evaluate: 1) if the sperm selection with hyaluronic acid (HA) or polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) before injection could play a key role in increasing fertilization and blastocyst formation and 2) the embryo developmental ability and blastocyst production of porcine immature oocytes retrieved after vitrification-warming and co-cultured with granulosa cells during IVM, using different fertilization techniques: in vitro fertilization (IVF), intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) and conventional ICSI with hyaluronic acid (HA) sperm selection, known as physiological intracytoplasmic sperm injection (PICSI) and. Results Sperm selected with HA-PICSI displayed a higher percentage of live/acrosome reacted status compared to those in control and exposed to PVP. Higher dead/acrosome reacted rates were obtained after PVP exposure compared to control and HA. In oocytes, viability significantly decreased after IVM in vitrified oocytes. Besides, IVM rates were not different between control denuded oocytes cultured with granulosa cells (DO-GC) and vitrified oocytes. Regarding fertilization parameters, IVF showed higher percentages of total fertilization rate than those obtained by ICSI and PICSI. However, results demonstrate that PICSI fertilization increased the blastocysts formation rate in control DO-GC and vitrified oocytes compared to IVF and ICSI. Conclusions To achieve high blastocyst formation rates from vitrified GV oocytes, it is recommended that sperm should be selected with HA instead of PVP before injection since high viability and acrosome reaction rates were obtained. Also, PICSI fertilization was the best method to produce higher blastocyst rates compared to the IVF and ICSI procedures.

This study was designed to evaluate the capacity of vitrified-warmed porcine immature oocytes to mature and to be fertilized using in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection, and to determine the subsequent embryo development. Immature oocytes were vitrified using ethylene glycol and dimethylsulphoxide as cryoprotectants and the Cryolock method. After warming oocytes were cultured 44 h for maturation. Oocytes were randomly distributed in three treatment groups and subjected to in vitro fertilization (Experiment 1) or intracytoplasmic sperm injection (Experiment 2) procedures. The results indicate that the embryo development was higher in denuded oocytes co-cultured with granulosa cells (NkO-CC group) fertilized by in vitro fertilization or intracytoplasmic sperm injection compared to cumulus-cell oocyte complexes (COCs group), showing no significant differences with control. Vitrified denuded oocytes matured with a co-culture system NkO-CC group, displayed higher cleavage rate and blastocyst production than vitrified COCs group. Blastocysts were successfully obtained after IVF and ICSI procedures; however, the development to the blastocyst stage was better after IVF. These results show that the vitrification-warming media, the employment of a granulosa cell co-culture system and the Cryolock method during vitrification, increased the nuclear and cytoplasmic maturation of vitrified porcine immature oocytes. Further experiments are required to enhance porcine embryo production after vitrification.

This study was designed to evaluate the efficiency of two oocyte vitrification-warming procedures using two different devices: Superfine Open Pulled Straws (SOPS) and Cryolock, as well as the effect of the co-culture of vitrified immature oocytes with fresh granulosa cells to improve in vitro maturation (IVM). Immature oocytes were vitrified with two procedures: A) Oocytes were exposed to an increasing concentration of ethylene glycol (EG) from 4% to 35% with 0.5 M trehalose. They then, were loaded in SOPS or Cryolock. For warming, oocytes were exposed to decreasing concentrations of trehalose 0.3, 0.2 and 0.1 M for IVM. B) Oocytes were exposed to two mixtures of EG and dimethylsulfoxide (Me2SO), at 7.5% and 16%, both with 0.4 M of sucrose and then loaded in SOPS or Cryolock and stored in liquid nitrogen. For warming, oocytes were exposed to a single concentration of sucrose 0.5M. After warming, viability was determined; and after 44 h of IVM both viability and meiotic stages were evaluated. The results indicate no significant differences between procedures A and B with SOPS in all maturation stages, reaching a maximum maturation rate of 21%. As to Cryolock, significant differences were observed between both procedures, being procedure B, more efficient with a yield of 38% in MII stage and increased to 49% due to the co-culture with fresh granulosa cells. In conclusion, viability and maturation rates were improved with Cryolock and procedure B with the co-culture system in vitrified immature oocytes.