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This study examined the effects of postexercise chocolate milk (CM) or water (W) consumption during 5 days of intensive judo training with concomitant weight loss on salivary cortisol and testosterone, salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA), delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and judo-related performance. Twelve trained male judo athletes engaged in 5 days of intensive judo training followed by a simulated judo competition, on 2 separate training weeks 14 days apart. The athletes consumed 1000 mL of W (week 1) or CM (week 2) immediately post-training. During both weeks, athletes were instructed to “make weight” for the upcoming competition. Performance in timed push-ups and the Special Judo Fitness Test improved by 14.6% and 6.8%, respectively, at the end of the training week with CM consumption (both p < 0.001). Decreased salivary cortisol (p < 0.01) and a trend for an increased salivary testosterone/cortisol ratio (p = 0.07) were also observed midweek in the CM condition. Saliva flow rate was higher during the week with CM intake compared with W intake (p < 0.001). DOMS (p < 0.001) and mood disturbance (p < 0.0001) increased after the first day of training in the W condition but not in the CM condition. Salivary testosterone and SIgA responses were similar between treatments (p > 0.05). Body mass decreased by 1.9% in the W condition and by 1.1% in the CM condition, with no significant difference between treatments. This study indicates that postexercise CM consumption during short-term intensive judo training enhances aspects of recovery without affecting intentional weight loss.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the responses of salivary hormones and salivary secretory immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and anxiety in winners and losers during an international judo competition. Twenty-three trained, male, national-level judo athletes provided three saliva samples during a competition day: morning, in anticipation of competition after an overnight fast, mid-competition, and post-competition within 15 min post-fight for determination of salivary cortisol, salivary testosterone, salivary testosterone/cortisol ratio, SIgA absolute concentrations, SIgA secretion rate and saliva flow rate. The competitive state anxiety inventory questionnaire was completed by the athletes (n = 12) after the first saliva collection for determination of somatic anxiety, cognitive anxiety and self-confidence. Winners were considered 1-3 ranking place (n = 12) and losers (n = 11) below third place in each weight category. Winners presented higher anticipatory salivary cortisol concentrations (p = 0.03) and a lower mid-competition salivary testosterone/cortisol ratio (p = 0.003) compared with losers with no differences for salivary testosterone. Winners tended to have higher SIgA secretion rates (p = 0.07) and higher saliva flow rates (p = 0.009) at mid-competition. Higher levels of cognitive anxiety (p = 0.02) were observed in the winners, without differences according to the outcome in somatic anxiety and self-confidence. The results suggest that winners experienced higher levels of physiological arousal and better psychological preparedness in the morning, and as the competition progressed, the winners were able to control their stress response better.

Objectives: This paper discusses the use of saliva analysis as a tool for monitoring steroid, peptide, and immune markers of sports training. Design: Salivary gland physiology, regarding the regulation and stimulation of saliva secretion, as well as methodological issues including saliva collection, storage and analysis are addressed in this paper. The effects of exercise on saliva composition are then considered. Method: Exercise elicits changes in salivary levels of steroid hormones, immunoglobulins, antimicrobial proteins and enzymes. Cortisol, testosterone and dehydroepiandrosterone can be assessed in saliva, providing a non-invasive option to assess the catabolic and anabolic effects of exercise. Validation studies using blood and salivary measures of steroid hormones are addressed in this paper. Effects of acute exercise and training on salivary immunoglobulins (SIgA, SIgM, SIgG) and salivary antimicrobial proteins, including α-amylase, lysozyme and lactoferrin, are also discussed. Results: Analysis of cortisol and testosterone in saliva may help detect the onset of non-functional overreaching and subsequently may help to prevent the development of overtraining syndrome. Assessment of salivary immunoglobulins and antimicrobial proteins has been shown to successfully represent the effects of exercise on mucosal immunity. Increases in SIgA and antimicrobial proteins concentration and/or secretion rate are associated with acute exercise whereas conversely, decreases have been reported in athletes over a training season leaving the athlete susceptible for upper respiratory tract infections. Conclusions: The measurement of physiological biomarkers in whole saliva can provide a significant tool for assessing the immunological and endocrinological status associated with exercise and training.

Hormonal responses to exercise could be used as a marker of overreaching. A short exercise protocol that induces robust hormonal elevations in a normal trained state should be able to highlight hormonal changes during overreaching. This study compared plasma and salivary cortisol and testosterone responses to 4 exercise trials; these were (a) continuous cycle to fatigue at 75% peak power output (Wmax) (FAT); (b) 30-minute cycle alternating 1-minute 60% and 1 minute 90% Wmax (60/90); (c) 30-minute cycle alternating 1-minute 55% and 4-minute 80% Wmax (55/80); and (d) Squatting 8 sets of 10 repetitions at 10 repetition maximum (RESIST). Blood and saliva samples were collected pre-exercise and at 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, and 60 minute postexercise. Pre- to postexercise plasma cortisol increased in all exercise trials, except 60/90. Increases in 55/80 remained above pre-exercise levels for the entire postexercise period. Salivary cortisol increased from pre- to postexercise in FAT and 55/80 trials only. Once elevated after 55/80, it remained so for the postexercise period. Plasma testosterone increased from pre- to postexercise in all trials except 55/80. Saliva testosterone increased from pre- to postexercise in all trials with the longest elevation occurring after 55/80. Area under the curve analysis indicated that the exercise response of salivary hormones was greater in all cycle trials (cortisol) and in the 60/90 and 55/80 trials (testosterone) compared with the other trials. This study indicates that the 55/80 cycle protocol induces a prolonged salivary and plasma cortisol and salivary testosterone response compared with the other trials and so may be a useful diagnostic tool of overreaching.

Although resting immune function is not very different in athletes compared with non-athletes periods of intensified training (overreaching) in already well trained athletes can result in a depression of immunity in the resting state. Illness-prone athletes appear to have an altered cytokine response to antigen stimulation and exercise. Having low levels of salivary IgA secretion also makes athletes more susceptible to upper respiratory tract infections. Overtraining is associated with recurrent infections and immunodepression is common, but immune functions do not seem to be reliable markers of impending overtraining. There are several possible causes of the diminution of immune function associated with periods of heavy training. One mechanism may simply be the cumulative effects of repeated bouts of intense exercise (with or without tissue damage) with the consequent elevation of stress hormones, particularly glucocorticoids such as cortisol, causing temporary inhibition of TH-1 cytokines with a relative dampening of the cell-mediated response. When exercise is repeated frequently there may not be sufficient time for the immune system to recover fully. Tapering has been described as a gradual reduction in the training load which allows the recovery of physiological capacities that were impaired by previous intensive training and permits further training-induced adaptations to occur accompanied by competition performance enhancements. The majority of the studies that have examined the recovery of immunoendocrine responses during 1-3 week tapers in trained athletes have mainly reported enhanced performance, often accompanied by increased anabolic activity, reduced physiological stress and restoration of mucosal immunity and immune function.Quando se compara a função imune, em repouso, de atletas e não atletas, não se verificam grandes diferenças. Porém, períodos de treinamento intensificado ("overreaching") em atletas bem treinados podem induzir supressão da imunidade no estado de repouso. Os atletas com maior propensão para contrair doenças parecem apresentar uma resposta alterada de citocinas, tanto quando estas são estimuladas por antígenos, quanto em resposta ao exercício propriamente dito. Baixos níveis de secreção de IgA salivar também contribuem para tornar os atletas mais susceptíveis à infecções do trato respiratório superior. A síndrome do "overtraining" é associada a infecções recorrentes e a imunossupressão é comum; no entanto, marcadores da função imune não parecem ser suficientemente sensíveis ao "overtraining" eminente. Existem várias possíveis causas para a diminuição da função imune associadas com períodos de treinamento severo. Um possível mecanismo pode ser simplesmente, o efeito acumulativo de atividades e sessões repetidas de exercício intenso (com ou sem dano tecidual), com a consequente elevação dos hormônios de estresse, particularmente os glicocorticóides como o cortisol, causando assim, uma inibição temporária das citocinas de TH-1, com uma relativa atenuação da resposta imune celular. Quando o exercício é repetido frequentemente, pode não haver tempo suficiente para uma total recuperação do sistema imunológico. O "Tapering" tem sido descrito como uma gradual redução na carga de treinamento a qual permite a recuperação das capacidades fisiológicas, que por sua vez, foram afetadas pelo treinamento intensivo anterior, permitindo assim, que adaptações adicionais decorrentes do treinamento ocorram, acompanhadas pelo incremento do desempenho competitivo. A maioria dos estudos que investigaram a recuperação das respostas imuno-endócrinas em atletas durante uma a três semanas de "taper" tem registrado aumento do desempenho, frequentemente acompanhado pelo aumento da atividade anabólica, redução do estresse fisiológico e restabelecimento da imunidade das mucosas e da função imune.

The aims of this study were to identify the time course of change of salivary testosterone (sT), cortisol (sC), and IgA (SIgA); mood state; and performance capacity during a 2-week taper in judo athletes and to examine the diurnal variation in these salivary markers. Eleven male judo athletes completed 5 weeks of training: 1 week of normal training (NORM), 2 weeks of intensified training (INT), and 2 weeks of exponential tapering (TAPER). Once per week subjects completed vertical and horizontal countermovement jump tests, a grip strength test, a Special Judo Fitness Test, a multistage aerobic fitness test, a 3 × 300-m run test, and anthropometric measurement. Subjects also completed questionnaires to assess mood state and muscle soreness. Two daily saliva samples (at 0700 and 1900) were collected at the end of each week during NORM and INT and every day during TAPER. Increased morning sT, decreased evening sC, lower muscle soreness, and enhanced mood state (p < 0.05) were evident by the early phases of TAPER. A significant 7.0% improvement in 3 × 300-m performance time, a 6.9% improvement in the vertical jump (p < 0.05), and increased morning and evening SIgA secretion rate (p < 0.01) were observed during the middle-late phases of TAPER. The higher values of salivary variables were observed in the morning. This study indicates that salivary hormones display diurnal variation. Furthermore, changes in hormonal responses, mood state, and muscle soreness precede enhancements in performance and mucosal immunity, suggesting that judo athletes taper for at least a week before competition.