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Editor's Note: This paper from Professor Elvehjem's group at the University of Wisconsin was the first to demonstrate the essentiality of copper for hemopoiesis in an animal. Forty years later Professor George Graham's group at Johns Hopkins University found signs of copper deficiency in malnourished infants.

PEROSIS, an anatomical deformity of the leg bones of young chicks, was first described by Hunter and Funk (1930). The condition is associated with a high intake of calcium and phosphorus, and a low intake of manganese (Hunter et al., 1931; Milby, 1934; Wilgus et al., 1936–1937; Clifcorn et al., 1938). Later, the work of Wiese et al. (1939) showed that the blood and bone phosphatase activity of perotic birds was lower than that of chicks receiving an adequate amount of manganese in their diet. As the leg bones of chicks with perosis are bent and twisted from their normal shape it was thought that there might be an abnormal distribution of the enzyme phosphatase in the bones of these chicks. In this paper we wish to report the results we have observed on the distribution of this enzyme in the leg bones of perotic and normal chicks. EXPERIMENTAL

1. Our data indicate that the effectiveness of whole liver in the treatment of nutritional anemia in rats induced by a milk diet is directly proportional to its available iron and copper content. The other constituents in liver are not needed for maximum hemoglobin regeneration on a diet of milk, iron, copper, and manganese. 2. Commercial preparations of liver products with iron or iron and copper vary greatly in their hemoglobin-regenerating efficiency in rats with nutritional anemia. The variation is correlated directly with the iron and copper content of the preparation. When the copper-iron ratio was too wide hemoglobin regeneration was checked, although the iron supply was sufficient for optimum regeneration.

Summary 1.The serum of winter produced milk showed physical characteristics at variance with that of summer produced milk. It was clarified with greater difficulty. An adjustment of the salt balance and pH improved somewhat the technique used for the preparation of the serum from winter milk. The time at which these changes occur varies from year to year. 2.The serum of winter produced milk showed lower nutritive value than that of summer produced milk as measured by its use in supplementing a highly purified diet as a source of the vitamin B complex. 3.The significance of these studies lies in the relation of fresh plant tissue as contrasted with field dried material to subtle changes in the milk secreted.

Summary Goats receiving trace-mineralized salt (containing cobalt), in comparison to those receiving only iodized salt, were observed to have a higher level of vitamin B 12 in their colostrum and milk during the first week post-partum. Trace-mineralized salt or a 50-mg. supplement of cobalt per goat per day had no influence upon the level of this vitamin in the goat's milk after this time. The addition of trace-minerals to the diet of the goat did not influence the free folic acid level of the goat's milk. The lower folic acid content of goat's milk observed in this study is believed to be more accurate than the previous data of Collins et al . (1).

SummaryIn order to study the paralysis described in dogs by Smith, a ration similar to that described in her work was prepared and fed to growing dogs. When placed on this ration, our animals failed to grow and developed a paralysis which was curable with potassium. Even though Smith has obtained cures with the administration of biotin, one of our animals receiving biotin became paralyzed and responded to potassium therapy.

SummaryHigh oral intakes of folic acid are stored inefficiently in chick livers and have little if any effect on the content of this vitamin in chick muscle tissue. Chicks given large oral doses of folic acid and then placed on a folic acid-deficient diet grew as well as chicks receiving an equivalent amount of folic acid by injection. The distribution of folic acid in some representative chick tissues has been studied.

Summary 1.The effect of moisture level and temperature on carotene losses in dehydrated alfalfa and cereal grasses was studied under sealed conditions. The moisture levels studied were 2.5 to 15 per cent and the temperatures employed were 22 to 25° C. and 33 to 36° C. 2.In most instances, almost complete carotene preservation resulted with 10 to 15 per cent of water. Preserving both the carotene and the green color was best accomplished at 7.5 to 10 per cent of water with 10 per cent as the preferred level because of the more optimum carotene preservation with no detrimental color change. At 7.5 per cent of water, the amount of loss was unpredictable and varied from 2.5 to 17 per cent. The losses increased with decreasing water levels below 7.5 per cent and at 2.5 to 5 per cent varied from 5 to 32 per cent. 3.Storage at 22 to 25° C. (room temperature) was more favorable for the preservation of the green color at 10 to 15 per cent of water level than storage at 33 to 36° C. Little difference in color preservation was observed at either temperature with the moisture below 10 per cent. Postitive pressures seldom were observed with 10 per cent moisture or less and storage at 22 to 25° C. 4.Storage under sealed conditions at 33 to 36° C. of a mixed feed containing 15 per cent alfalfa as the main source of carotene resulted in complete carotene retention with 10 per cent of moisture. Below 7.5 per cent the losses were large. The feed became bleached in the unwaxed carton but retained a pleasant aroma. In waxed eartons feed at any moisture level remained green and had pleasant aromas. 5.Where the mixed feed contained the added trace elements Fe, Cu, Mn and Co, the contents of the unwaxed carton were bleached and also possessed a rancid or tallowy odor. Under sealed conditions the green color and fine aroma were retained, and at 10 per cent and above of water, the carotene was preserved completely. 6.Investigation of many materials as barriers to oxygen and carbon dioxide transmission finally led to the use of Saran, a plastic film. It was found effective for the preservation of carotene in dehydrated alfalfa, with a proper water level.

Summary The addition of urea as a source of nitrogen definitely increased the synthesis of riboflavin, nicotinic acid, biotin and pantothenic acid in the bovine rumen when a readily available carbohydrate was present. Pyridoxine and “folic acid” could not be too closely correlated with ration composition. In the absence of a readily fermentable carbohydrate and probably a low population of microorganisms the synthesis of the members of the B complex is not at a maximum. The data indicate that thiamine may not be synthesized in the rumen. However, it seems more than probable that it is synthesized, but absorbed or destroyed at a rate greater than its synthesis.

AS Hou (1928) has pointed out in his review of the literature, the preen gland in birds has long been a subject of discussion; but, as yet, no specific indispensable function has been assigned to it. Hou, on the basis of his own work, concluded that the removal of the preen gland from adult birds caused a disturbance of the feather growth and an impairment of general health, while in young birds its removal caused rickets, in spite of normal feeding and sunshine treatment. One of the functions of this gland, as proposed by Hou, is the production of a secretion which the bird, during the act of preening, rubs over its feathers. Activation of some of the constituents of this material, during its exposure to the sun, leads to the formation of vitamin D. The vitamin is then taken in by the bird, via the mouth, at a subsequent . . .

SummaryThe curative action of corn oil in healing the “spectacled eye” condition has been demonstrated. The identity of the factor in liver which prevents these symptoms with the other members of the vitamin B complex has been discussed. Direct and indirect evidence is offered that, besides the crystalline vitamins contained in the ration, the factor concerned is not identical with pantothenic acid, factor W and the factor preventing nutritional achromotrichia. A possible relationship of this factor to the so-called “accessory factor” preventing acrodynia and of this condition to the “type III” dermatitis of Gyorgy and Eckardt is pointed out. Further, the relation of this condition to the deficiency of the essential fatty acids is discussed.

Summary 1. The rate of carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption by dehydrated alfalfa and cereal grasses under sealed conditions was studied at moisture levels of 10–25 per cent. The rate of respiration increased as the level of moisture and the temperature were increased. The extent of carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption was variable with time at a given moisture level. 2. The rate of carbon dioxide production in a dehydrated alfalfa with 10 per cent of total water is less than one-third the rate observed when the product contains 20 per cent of total water. 3. With 10 per cent or less of total water, the rate of carbon dioxide production and oxygen consumption generally is too slow to insure complete carotene preservation under sealed conditions. The carotene losses may vary from 5–30 per cent during storage at room temperatures of 22–25° C. for 3 months. With 12.5 per cent of total water under sealed conditions for 3 months, both products (alfalfa, Heil Drier, and alfalfa, Fulmer Drier) retained completely their carotene content as well as their green color.

THE essential nature of vitamin B6 for the chick was first shown by Carter and O’Brien (1939), Hegsted, Oleson, Elvehjem, and Hart (1939), and Jukes (1939). No attempt was made by these workers to establish the actual requirement of this vitamin, probably because their rations were low in other necessary factors as evidenced by the poor growth obtained at three weeks when vitamin B6 was added to their rations. Stokstad, Manning, and Rogers (1940) reported that chicks receiving 250 micrograms of vitamin B6 per 100 grams of ration weighed 99 grams at three weeks. Increasing the level of vitamin B6 produced no increase in growth. These workers state that their basal ration was also low in factor U. The first observations on the actual requirement of the chick for vitamin B6 were made by Hogan, Richardson, Patrick, O’Dell, and Kempster (1941) while studying anemia and perosis in chicks. These workers . . .

Summary 1.Cobalt deficiency, characterized by unthriftiness and anemia, has been observed in cattle in Northeastern Wisconsin. 2.This deficiency was corrected by the feeding of salt containing one ounce of cobalt sulfate (CoSO 4 · 7H 2 O) per 100 pounds. When this salt mixture is incorporated into the grain at a level of one per cent, it will supply about 3mg. of elemental cobalt per day when five pounds of grain are consumed. Good results were also secured by the daily feeding of one teaspoonful of a solution made by dissolving one ounce of either cobalt sulphate or cobalt chloride in one gallon of water. 3.The normal range of the hemoglobin level of calves, heifers, and cows was 9.5 to 12.5 grams per 100 cc. of blood. 4.The tolerance for cobalt in this species was high. Feeding as much as 50mg. of cobalt per day produced no polycythemia.

Summary 1.Destruction of the lipoxidase by autoclaving for 1hour at 15 lbs. pressure did not preserve the carotene content of dehydrated alfalfa or cereal grasses exposed to air at room temperature. 2.The addition of 5 to 10 per cent of water to these dehydrated materials and then lightly packing them in receptacles sealed with flexo wax or Durex wax preserved the carotene completely for 3 months, when held at room temperature (22–25° C). The total water content for the oats was 15–20 percent and for the alfalfa 12–17 percent. 3.The process of preservation appears to be a restoration of more rapid respiratory enzyme action with utilization of the oxygen and formation of carbon dioxide. There was no indication that bacterial action directly was responsible for the changes that occurred. Temperature changes during the process of respiration were negligible in the masses of material used. 4.It is evident that receptacles with minimum or no air and CO 2 effusion rates are necessary for success in the preservation of the carotene by the method outlined. Oxygen must be excluded or at least held at a low concentration. This phase of the problem is under further study.

IN a previous paper by Deobald, Lease, Hart, and Halpin (1936) it was shown that the blood calcium of the laying pullet does not show any marked variation during an entire laying cycle and that approximately 10 percent of the calcium in the bones of a laying pullet is available for egg shell formation when the calcium is removed from the ration. Feinberg, Hughes, and Scott (1937) and Common (1936) have published data in substantial agreement with these findings. Common (1936) has shown quite wide variations in calcium content of the blood of individual hens over a four-month period when samples for analysis were taken at approximately monthly intervals. Riddle (1926) working with pigeons, and Roepke and Hughes (1935) working with laying pullets, have reported a marked rise in total serum phosphorus when the birds approach sexual maturity. The rise in blood calcium during this period is also well known . . .

The recent work reported by Elvehjem and Hart1 demonstrating that day-old chicks, when placed on a restricted diet, invariably develop anemia, has introduced the question of the possible presence of anemia in chicks raised under practical conditions. A diet consisting of whole cow’s milk and alcohol extracted rice supplemented with lime and salt produced anemia in chicks in a period of 12 to 15 days when the chicks were kept in pens equipped with wire screen bottoms. The anemia produced on such a diet was readily relieved by additions of iron alone because the rice in the ration contained enough copper to supplement the added iron. However, when greater precautions were taken to eliminate the copper from the basal ration, the addition of pure iron was not effective until minute amounts of copper were also fed. This shows that iron needs to be supplemented with copper for hemoglobin synthesis in . . .

Summary In this paper data are presented on the influence of cerelose (glucose) and mineral acid (HCl) on the absorption of calcium by the milking cow. 1.There was no consistent and favorable influence on calcium assimilation in dairy cows through the daily addition of 3 pounds of cerelose (glucose) to a standard ration of hay, silage, cereal grains, and cereal grain concentrates. 2.The daily ingestion of 115 or 230 cc. of 40 per cent HCl increased the calcium excretion in the urine with a greater net loss of calcium to the animal than when no acid was fed. The calcium absorption from the intestine was slightly improved through the use of mineral acid. 3.What factor in green plant tissue operates in securing for the cow a better utilization of the calcium in the green plant tissue or added calcium salts is not solved by the technique used in the above experiments.

IN A series of papers; Rose and co-workers (1936); Rose (1937); Womack, Kemmerer and Rose (1937); Womack and Rose (1941), presented evidence proving the dispensability of cystine and the indispensability of methionine in the diet of the rat. These workers also showed that cystine is capable of stimulating growth in rats only if the diet is suboptimal in methionine. Their findings indicate that on a cystine deficient diet, body cystine arises from dietary methionine and that on a suboptimal methionine diet, cystine included in the diet has methionine sparing action. That the sulphur of cystine synthesized in the body actually originates from methionine was established by Tarver and Schmidt (1939) and confirmed by Rose and Wood (1941). The relationship between choline, homocystine and methionine was worked out by du Vigneaud et al. (1939) who showed that in the presence of choline, homocystine is capable of replacing methionine in the diet . . .