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International audience; The 3-O-desacyl-4'-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) activates immunity through Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling. The Adjuvant System AS01 contains MPL and is used in the candidate malaria vaccine and the licensed zoster vaccine. Recent studies reported that AS01 adjuvant activity depends on a transient inflammation at the site of vaccination, but the role of stromal or structural cells in the adjuvant effect is unknown. We investigated this question in mouse models by assessing the role of TLR4 on hematopoietic versus resident structural cells during immunization with AS01-adjuvanted vaccines. We first established that TLR4-deficient animals had a reduced immune response to an AS01-adjuvanted vaccine. Using bone marrow chimera, we consistently found that Tlr4 expression in radio-sensitive cells, i.e., hematopoietic cells, was required for an optimal adjuvant effect on antibody and T-cell responses. At day 1 after injection, the pro-inflammatory reaction at the site of injection was strongly dependent on TLR4 signaling in hematopoietic cells. Similarly, activation of dendritic cells in muscle-draining lymph nodes was strictly associated with the radio-sensitive cells expressing Tlr4. Altogether, these data suggest that MPL-mediated TLR4-signaling in hematopoietic cells is critical in the mode of action of AS01.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is known to exert suppressive effects on the host immune system through expression of various viral genes, thus directly and indirectly affecting antiviral immunity of the infected individuals. We report here that HCMV UL10 encodes a protein (pUL10) with immunosuppressive properties. UL10 has been classified as a member of the HCMV RL11 gene family. Although pUL10 is known to be dispensable for viral replication in cultured cells, its amino-acid sequence is well conserved among different HCMV isolates, suggesting that the protein has a crucial role in viral survival in the host environment. We show that pUL10 is cleaved from the cell surface of fibroblasts as well as epithelial cells and interacts with a cellular receptor ubiquitously expressed on the surface of human leukocytes, demonstrated by ex vivo cell-based assays and flow cytometric analyses on both lymphoid cell lines and primary blood cells. Furthermore, preincubation of peripheral blood mononuclear cells with purified pUL10 ectodomain results in significantly impaired proliferation and substantially reduced pro-inflammatory cytokine production, in particular in CD4 + T cells upon in vitro T-cell stimulation. The inhibitory effect of pUL10 is also observed on antigen receptor-mediated intracellular tyrosine phosphorylation in a T-cell line. Based on these observations, we suggest that pUL10 is a newly identified immunomodulatory protein encoded by HCMV. Further elucidation of interactions between pUL10 and the host immune system during HCMV may contribute to finding ways towards new therapies for HCMV infection.

Adjuvants are substances that enhance adaptive immune responses when formulated in a vaccine. Alum and MF59 are two vaccine adjuvants licensed for human vaccination. Their mode of action has not been completely elucidated. Here we show the first ultrastructural visualization of Alum and MF59 interaction with immune cells in vitro and in vivo. We observed that Alum is engulfed by cells as inclusions of laminae that are detectable within draining lymph nodes. MF59 is instead engulfed by cells in vitro as low-electron-dense lipid-like inclusions that display a vesicle pattern, as confirmed by confocal microscopy using fluorescently labeled MF59. However, lipid-like inclusions with different high- and low-electron-dense content are detected within cells of draining lymph nodes when injecting MF59. As high-electron-dense lipid-like inclusions are also detected upon injection of Alum, our results suggest that the low-electron-dense inclusions are formed by engulfed MF59, whereas the high-electron-dense inclusions are proper lipid inclusions. Thus, we demonstrated that vaccine adjuvants are engulfed as inclusions by lymph node cells and hypothesize that adjuvant treatment may modify lipid metabolism.

Vaccination is one of the most cost-effective health interventions and, with the exception of water sanitization, no other action has had such a major effect in mortality reduction. Combined with other approaches, such as clean water, better hygiene, and health education, vaccination contributed to prevent millions of cases of deaths among children under 5 years of age. New or improved vaccines are needed to fight some vaccine-preventable diseases that are still a threat for the public health globally, as reported also in the Global Vaccine Action Plan (GVAP) endorsed by the World Health Assembly in 2012. Adjuvants are substances that enhance the effectiveness of vaccination, but despite their critical role for the development of novel vaccines, very few of them are approved for use in humans. Aluminum hydroxide (Alum) is the most common adjuvant used in vaccines administered in millions of doses around the world to prevent several dangerous diseases. The development of an improved version of Alum can help to design and produce new or better vaccines. Alum/toll-like receptor (TLR)7 is a novel Alum-based adjuvant, currently in phase I clinical development, formed by the attachment of a benzonaphthyridine compound, TLR7 agonist, to Alum. In preclinical studies, Alum/TLR7 showed a superior adjuvant capacity, compared to Alum, in several disease models, such as meningococcal meningitis, anthrax, staphylococcus infections. None of these studies reported the effect of Alum/TLR7 on the generation of the B cell memory compartment, despite this is a critical aspect to achieve a better immunization. In this study, we show, for the first time, that, compared to Alum, Alum/TLR7 enhances the expansion of the memory B cell compartment within the draining lymph node (LN) as result of intranodal sustained proliferation of antigen-engaged B cells and/or accumulation of memory B cells. In addition, we observed that Alum/TLR7 induces a recruitment of naïve antigen-specific B cells within the draining LN that may help to sustain the germinal center reaction. Our data further support Alum/TLR7 as a new promising adjuvant, which might contribute to meet the expectations of the GVAP for 2020 and beyond.

Ag retention within lymph nodes (LNs) upon vaccination is critical for the development of adaptive immune responses, because it facilitates the encounter of the Ag with cognate lymphocytes. During a secondary exposure of the immune system to an Ag, immune complexes (ICs) that contain the unprocessed Ag are captured by subcapsular sinus macrophages and are transferred onto follicular dendritic cells, where they persist for weeks, facilitating Ag presentation to cognate memory B cells. The impact of adjuvants on Ag retention within the draining LNs is unknown. In this article, we provide the first evidence, to our knowledge, that the oil-in-water emulsion adjuvant MF59 localizes in subcapsular sinus and medullary macrophage compartments of mouse draining LNs, where it persists for at least 2 wk. In addition, we demonstrate that MF59 promotes accumulation of the unprocessed Ag within these LN compartments and facilitates the consequent deposition of the IC-trapped Ag onto activated follicular dendritic cells. These findings correlate with the ability of MF59 to boost germinal center generation and Ag-specific Ab titers. Our data suggest that the adjuvant effect of MF59 is, at least in part, due to an enhancement of IC-bound Ag retention within the LN and offer insights to improve the efficacy of new vaccine adjuvants.

MF59 is an oil-in-water emulsion adjuvant approved for human influenza vaccination in European Union. The mode of action of MF59 is not fully elucidated yet, but results from several years of investigation indicate that MF59 establishes an immunocompetent environment at injection site which promotes recruitment of immune cells, including antigen presenting cells (APCs), that are facilitated to engulf antigen and transport it to draining lymph node (dLN) where the antigen is accumulated. In vitro studies showed that MF59 promotes the differentiation of monocytes to dendritic cells (Mo-DCs). Since after immunization with MF59, monocytes are rapidly recruited both at the injection site and in dLN and appear to have a morphological change toward a DC-like phenotype, we asked whether MF59 could play a role in inducing differentiation of Mo-DC in vivo. To address this question we immunized mice with the auto-fluorescent protein Phycoerythrin (PE) as model antigen, in presence or absence of MF59. We measured the APC phenotype and their antigen uptake within dLNs, the antigen distribution within the dLN compartments and the humoral response to PE. In addition, using Ovalbumin as model antigen, we measured the capacity of dLN APCs to induce antigen-specific CD4 T cell proliferation. Here, we show, for the first time, that MF59 promotes differentiation of Mo-DCs within dLNs from intranodal recruited monocytes and we suggest that this differentiation could take place in the medullary compartment of the LN. In addition we show that the Mo-DC subset represents the major source of antigen-loaded and activated APCs within the dLN when immunizing with MF59. Interestingly, this finding correlates with the enhanced triggering of antigen-specific CD4 T cell response induced by LN APCs. This study therefore demonstrates that MF59 is able to promote an immunocompetent environment also directly within the dLN, offering a novel insight on the mechanism of action of vaccine adjuvants based on emulsions.

Background & Aims Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is remarkably successful in establishing persistent infections due to its ability to evade host immune responses through a combination of mechanisms including modulation of interferon (IFN) signalling in infected cells, interference with effector cell function of the immune system and continual viral genetic variation. We have previously demonstrated that natural killer (NK) cells can be inhibited in vitro by recombinant HCV glycoprotein E2 via cross-linking of CD81, a cellular co-receptor for the virus. Methods Taking advantage of the recently established tissue-culture system for HCV, we have studied the effects of CD81 engagement by the HCV envelope glycoprotein E2 when the protein is part of complete, infectious viral particles. Specifically, we asked whether exposure to HCV viral particles (HCVcc) affects activation of NK cells and whether altered NK cell activation, in turn, impacts on HCV infectivity. Results We found that immobilized HCVcc, unlike soluble HCVcc, inhibited IFN-γ production by interleukin (IL)-12 activated NK cells, and that this effect was mediated by engagement of cellular CD81 by HCV-virion displayed E2. In contrast, NK-production of IL-8 was increased in the presence of HCV. The cytokines produced by IL-12 activated NK cells strongly reduced the establishment of productive HCV infection. Importantly, NK-cell derived cytokines secreted in the presence of HCVcc showed a diminished antiviral effect that correlated with IFN-γ reduction, while IL-8 concentrations had no impact on HCV infectivity. Conclusions Exposure to HCVcc modulates the pattern of cytokines produced by NK cells, leading to reduced antiviral activity.

Human plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) and myeloid dendritic cells (mDCs) are 2 types of antigen-presenting cells that exert complementary roles in innate immune responses. We demonstrated previously that in the presence of suboptimal stimulation or when only 1 dendritic cell type is directly stimulated, contact-dependent crosstalk between mDCs and pDCs leads to the activation of both cell types and thus provides them with the ability to induce an optimal T-cell response. The precise mechanism is currently unknown. Here we demonstrate that pDCs, unable to secrete soluble factors because of previous stimulation, induce optimal mDC maturation, indicating that resting immature mDCs are fully competent to respond to Toll-like receptor-9-engaged pDCs in the absence of soluble factors. Thus, we conclude that immature mDCs already express receptors recognized by ligands that are upregulated on the surface of activated pDCs. Intercellular adhesion molecule-1 upregulated by activated pDCs may play a role in a donor-dependent manner.

Dendritic cell (DC) populations play unique and essential roles in the detection of pathogens, but information on how different DC types work together is limited. In this study, 2 major DC populations of human blood, myeloid (mDCs) and plasmacytoid (pDCs), were cultured alone or together in the presence of pathogens or their products. We show that pDCs do not respond to whole bacteria when cultured alone, but mature in the presence of mDCs. Using purified stimuli, we dissect this cross-talk and demonstrate that mDCs and pDCs activate each other in response to specific induction of only one of the cell types. When stimuli for one or both populations are limited, they synergize to reach optimal activation. The cross-talk is limited to enhanced antigen presentation by the nonresponsive population with no detectable changes in the quantity and range of cytokines produced. We propose that each population can be a follower or leader in immune responses against pathogen infections, depending on their ability to respond to infectious agents. In addition, our results indicate that pDCs play a secondary role to induce immunity against human bacterial infections, which has implications for more efficient targeting of DC populations with improved vaccines and therapeutics.

Human blood contains 2 populations of dendritic cells (DCs): plasmacytoid and myeloid (mDC). mDCs are subdivided into 3 subsets using the surface markers CD16, CD1c, and BDCA-3. Their role as pathogen sentinels and adjuvant targets was tested by phenotypic and functional analysis. We show that mDC subsets are immature and express mRNA for most toll-like receptors (TLRs), except for TLR3 in CD16-mDCs. The most represented subsets, CD16- and CD1c-mDCs, are similarly responsive to all TLR agonists. Among 31 cytokines tested, both subsets produce CXCL8 (IL-8)/tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α)/IL-6/CCL3 (MIP-1α)/CCL4 (MIP-1β)/IL-1β. CXCL8 (IL-8) is the predominant cytokine produced by CD1c-mDCs on TLR engagement, whereas all other cytokines, particularly TNF-α, are secreted in 10-fold to 100-fold higher amounts by CD16-mDCs. CD16-mDCs cocultured with human umbilical vein endothelial cells induce a significantly higher production of CXCL10 (IP-10), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor, and granulocyte colony-stimulating factor than CD1c-mDCs. In addition, interleukin-3 and type I interferons are stimuli specifically for DC maturation rather than cytokine secretion, whereas TNF-α is almost ineffective in inducing either function, suggesting a mechanism of T-cell–DC crosstalk and of rapid induction of antigen-presenting cell function during viral infection rather than inflammation. In conclusion, CD16-mDCs show strong proinflammatory activity, whereas CD1c-mDCs appear to be mainly inducers of chemotaxis.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Dendritic cells (DCs) play a key role in immune responses through antigen presentation and cytokine secretion. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is able to escape elimination by the immune system and often establishes a chronic infection. To investigate whether DC dysfunction is involved in this process, we have studied monoycte-derived DCs (Mo-DCs) and plasmacytoid DCs (pDCs), which produce large amounts of IFN-alpha, from chronic HCV patients and healthy donors. METHODS: We have assessed TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha production by pDCs using intracellular staining after total PBMCs stimulation with unmethylated CG dinucleotides (CpGs). The induction of allogeneic T cell proliferation by immature Mo-DCs was measured using the MLR assay. The up-regulation of maturation markers and the production of TNF-alpha in response to LPS were analyzed using flow cytometry and ELISA, respectively. RESULTS: We have detected comparable frequencies of pDCs producing TNF-alpha and IFN-alpha in both chronic HCV patients and healthy donors and we have found that immature Mo-DCs from both patients and donors similarly induce allogeneic T cell proliferation and mature and secrete TNF-alpha in response to LPS. CONCLUSIONS: Our results demonstrate that both pDC and Mo-DCs are not impaired in HCV infected patients.

Natural killer (NK) cells and dendritic cells (DCs) are two distinct cell types of innate immunity. It is known that the in vitro interaction of human NK cells with autologous DCs results in DC lysis. Here we show that contact-dependent interactions between activated human NK cells and immature DCs (iDCs) provides a “control switch” for the immune system. At low NK/DC ratios, this interaction dramatically amplifies DC responses, whereas at high ratios it completely turns off their responses. Specifically, culture of activated human NK cells with iDCs, at low NK/DC ratios (1:5), led to exponential increases in DC cytokine production, which were completely dependent on cell-to-cell contact. DC maturation was also driven by cognate interactions with NK cells and maturation was dependent on endogenously produced TNF-α in the culture. At slightly higher NK/DC ratios (5:1), inhibition of DC functions was the dominant feature due to potent killing by the autologous NK cells. Resting NK cells also stimulated autologous DC maturation in a TNF-α/contact-dependent manner, however, increasing the NK/DC ratio only led to an enhancement of this effect.