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Reputation can significantly improve the level of cooperation in human societies. In recent years, most research efforts considered binary image scores or first-order evaluation models, and second-order criteria were considered only in well-mixed populations. In this paper, we therefore study the impact of four typical second-order reputation evaluation models in the spatial prisoner’s dilemma game. Second-order reputation evaluation entails that an individual’s image score is updated not only in accordance with his own strategy, but also in accordance with the reputation of the neighbors. We introduce a value for the reputation step length such that individuals can only maximize their reputation if they cooperate with the surrounding high-reputation individuals, and then thus become influential individuals in the population. By means of systematic Monte Carlo simulations, we show that all four rules promote cooperation beyond spatial reciprocity in the considered prisoner’s dilemma game, and we also show that the longer the reputation step length the higher the level of cooperation. These results shed light on how reputation in structured populations affects cooperative behavior, and they might have important implications for human group dynamics and for cooperation in human societies in general.

Racialist doctrine, which will be the readers chief concern here, can be presented as coherent set of propositions. Racism is an ancient form of behavior that is probably found worldwide; racialism is a movement of ideas born in Western Europe whose period of flowering extends from the mid-eighteenth century to the mid-twentieth. Several common features indicate that racialism belongs to the spiritual family of scientism. Racialist theories are no longer in fashion today, but the scientistic doctrine continues to flourish. The “epoch” is not actually the result of the era in which one lives, but rather the result of the phase of an internal evolution proper to each human group; in other words, it combines the two preceding factors, yet it becomes a determining factor in turn. And it must be said that in practice, physical characteristics play only a small part in Taine's analyses; thus, contrary to what his own distinctions imply, his races are nations, understood as “cultures”.

The active role of humans in the long history of domestication has been stressed in the debate over genetic engineering. By the time the third stage began, human control over animals seemed paramount, although every step to increased productivity was accompanied by unforeseen consequences that had to be culled. Unconscious selection is more often used for the selective pressures brought to bear on animals and plants by placing them in a human modified environment and exposing them to particular systems of husbandry. Examination of the role of unintentional human-influenced selection in the domestication of cereals was extended to several other plant types in the 1980s. Synanthropic selection occurs where a species is attracted to the highly modified environment that surrounds humans. The wolf’s habit of traveling in a pack can be seen as a preadaptation for migration with a human group.

In marching bands, sports, dance and virtually all human group behaviour, we coordinate our actions with others. Coordinating actions in time and space can act as a social glue, facilitating bonding among people. However, much of our understanding about coordination dynamics is based on research into dyadic interactions. Little is known about the nature of the sensorimotor underpinnings and social bonding outcomes of coordination in medium-sized groups—the type of groups, in which most everyday teamwork takes place. In this study, we explored how the presence of a leader and an unexpected perturbation influence coordination and cohesion in a naturalistic setting. In groups of seven, participants were instructed to walk in time to an auditory pacing signal. We found that the presence of a reliable leader enhanced coordination with the target tempo, which was disrupted when the leader abruptly changed their movement tempo. This effect was not observed on coordination with the group members. Moreover, participants’ perceptions of being a follower and group cooperativeness increased in the presence of a leader. This study extends our knowledge about coordination beyond previous work on dyads. We discuss our results in light of sensorimotor coupling and social cohesion theories of coordination in groups.

Genocide is a dehumanizing crime that threatens the welfare of any civilized society. Yet, before the annihilation of any targeted human group, the collective outcomes of the genocidal process (e.g., systemic desecrations) and genocidal death effect (e.g., years of mass deaths and death disparities) have often gone undetected, underestimated, or ignored by public health and human rights advocates. From1950-2010, the mass homicide-suicide killings engendering the premature deaths of Black males, ages15-24 years, corroborate that aspects of the genocidal process and genocidal death effect are happening in America. The mass killings of young Black males from these preventable homicide and suicide deaths are ethically alarming, and the determinants of death impacting their premature deaths command immediate primordial prevention and reinforced prevention efforts. An epidemiological genocide prevention matrix is explored as an innovative approach to address, prevent, and research premature deaths resulting from homicide and suicide, and genocidal death effect of young Black males. Undergirded by the Theory of Epidemiologic Transition, this article also examines the mass killings of young Black males through the genocidal and pragmatic lens.

espanolA comienzos del siglo XVI la cultura espanola estaba experimentando una profunda transformacion. El paso de la cultura medieval a la cultura moderna corria parejo a la creacion del Estado moderno y a la difusion de la economia capitalista gracias a la riqueza generada por la llegada de los metales preciosos y el comercio con las Indias. La sociedad espanola se debatia entre lo tradicional y lo nuevo. Los codigos de conducta y los valores heredados del pasado eran cuestionados, cuando no sustituidos, por otros nuevos. En este contexto uno de los temas que mas reflejan ese mundo cambiante es el del ascenso de un grupo humano en la hasta entonces rigida jerarquia social. Ese grupo era el de las personas que se estaban enriqueciendo rapidamente gracias al cambio economico que se estaba operando. La palanca que les impulsaba en su acenso social era la riqueza que acumulaban, la cual tambien les convertia en un modelo para la imitacion de muchos otros. Sin embargo, la acumulacion de ganancias generaba muchos recelos e, incluso, rechazo para la moral tradicional defendida y predicada por la Iglesia Catolica. Ademas, la conducta y actitudes de ese grupo humano no solo eran censurables para la moral de la epoca, sino que tambien, en tanto que podian ser contagiosos para el resto de la sociedad, debian ser denunciados y, en la medida de lo posible, reconducidos hacia valores mas consonantes con la tradicion de la Iglesia. Es en este contexto en el que se encuadra la predicacion de Tomas de Villanueva contra los peligros morales de la riqueza y contra las actitudes y conducta de los ricos. El conocimiento de los contenidos de la predicacion de uno de los mas excelsos predicadores de la Espana del siglo XVI se revela como un valioso acercamiento a la cultura economica de la epoca. A diferencia de teologos y academicos, los predicadores centraban sus esfuerzos no en profundizar en el conocimiento teorico de los grandes temas, sino en persuadir a sus fieles de no caer en conductas y actitudes contrarias a la moral o, si ya habian caido, de cambiar su estilo de vida. Por esta razon, por medio de la lectura de los textos conservados de los predicadores, podemos descubrir la mentalidad, las creencias, las ideas de la gente de la epoca. Santo Tomas de Villanueva, nos revela en sus sermones su gran conocimiento del pensamiento de la Iglesia sobre la riqueza, fruto de su formacion universitaria en Alcala. Nos muestra, al mismo tiempo, su fidelidad al magisterio eclesial, actualizado en Espana por Francisco de Vitoria y la Escuela de Salamanca. Pero, sin duda, lo mas revelador de la predicacion de nuestro santo es su agudeza para captar la mentalidad y contradicciones de la conducta de los ricos y de los que, sin serlo, compartian su avaricia, su codicia y su capacidad para remover conciencias y provocar cambios de conductas. Sin duda alguna, la burguesia, de la cual fueron precursores, consolidaria su ascenso social en los siglos posteriores. Pero eso no significa que en su horizonte cultural no quedara incluida de una u otra manera la conciencia de una responsabilidad social hacia los mas desfavorecidos. Algo que Tomas de Villanueva y otros muchos predicadores no dejaron nunca de proclamar. EnglishAt the beginning of the 16th century, Spanish culture was undergoing a deep transformation. The transition from medieval to modern culture was running on par with the creation of the modern state and the spread of the capitalist economy, thanks to the wealth generated by the arrival of precious metals and trade with the Indies. Spanish society was torn between the traditional and the new. The codes of conduct and values inherited from the past were questioned when not replaced by new ones.In this context, one of the issues that reflect that changing world the most is the rise of a human group in the hitherto rigid social hierarchy. It was the group of people who were quickly getting rich, thanks to the economic change that was taking place. The wealth they accumulated was the lever driving them in their social ascent, making them at the same time a model for imitation of many others.However, the accumulation of profits also generated many misgivings and reject by the traditional morals defended and preached by the Catholic Church. In addition, the behavior and attitudes of that human group were not only objectionable for the morals of the time, but also, insofar as they could be contagious for the rest of society, they should be denounced and, as far as possible, redirected to values more consistent with the tradition of the Church.It is in this context that Tomas de Villanueva's preaching is framed against the moral dangers of wealth and against the attitudes and behavior of the rich. The knowledge of the contents of the preaching of one of the most excellent preachers of the sixteenth-century Spain, is revealed as a valuable approach to the economic culture of the time. Unlike theologians and academics, the preachers focused their efforts not on deepening the theoretical knowledge of the great themes but on persuading their faithful not to fall into behaviors and attitudes contrary to morals or, if they had already fallen, to change their lifestyle. For this reason, from reading the preserved texts of the preachers we can discover the mentality, beliefs and ideas of the people of the time.Santo Tomas de Villanueva, reveals to us in his sermons his great knowledge of the Church's thought about wealth as a result of his university education in Alcala and, at the same time, his fidelity to the ecclesial teaching, updated in Spain by Francisco de Vitoria and the School of Salamanca. But, without a doubt, the most telling thing about the preaching of our saint is his keenness to capture the mentality and contradictions of the behavior of the rich and of those who, without being so, shared their greed and avarice and their ability to remove consciences and provoke behavior changes. Without a doubt, the bourgeoisie, of which these were its precursors, would consolidate its social ascent in later centuries. But that does not mean that in their cultural horizon the awareness of a social responsibility towards the most disadvantaged will not be included in one way or another. Something that Tomas de Villanueva and many other preachers never stopped proclaiming.

espanolLos patrones estilisticos del arte textil de cada grupo etnico andino expresan informacion especifica. Estos patrones pueden estar presentes en la elaboracion del khipu, que es un textil. El khipu formaria parte de la familia textil de un grupo humano dado. La configuracion estilistica del khipu podria considerarse como senal identitaria de un grupo social dado, mi propuesta para el presente trabajo. La asociacion de cada khipu arqueologico a un grupo etnico especifico y, a su interior, a un nivel de administracion indigena, es plausible. EnglishTextile art style patterns belonging to a unique ethnic group express specific information. They may be present in khipu configuration, since it is also a textile. Khipu would thus belong to the textile objects family of a given human group. Specific style khipu configuration could be considered an identity sign of a given ethnic group, which I propose in this article. The association of each archaeological khipu to a specific ethnic group and, within it, to a level of indigenous administration, is plausible.

Se presenta un pequeño conjunto de 10 tumbas situado en las inmediaciones de la villa de Almenara de Adaja-Puras. Esta área cementerial corresponde a un grupo humano relacionado con la última fase de la actividad en esta villa, cuando alrededor de la pars urbana se dispuso una serie de construcciones de tipo rústico que estuvieron en uso hasta avanzada la segunda mitad del s. v d. C. Se analizan varios aspectos de esta necrópolis, entre ellos la población enterrada y la caracterización del depósito funerario y/o del ritual. Así mismo se incide sobre la organización interna y su expolio, lo que ha permitido reconocer diferentes momentos de uso en época tardoantigua. Como rasgos más destacables de estas inhumaciones en fosa destacan la escasez de ajuares y de recipientes para el banquete fúnebre, el empleo de ataúdes y la presencia de calzado ritual depositado a un lado de los pies. Se han identificado varias tumbas que presentan una mayor complejidad constructiva; entre ellas hay una que cuenta con mensa, algo que resulta lo inhabitual en la zona septentrional de Hispania., We present a small group of 10 tombs located in the vicinity of Almenara de Adaja-Puras villa. This cemetery area corresponds to a human group related to the last phase of the activity in this Roman villa, when around the urban pars was arranged a series of constructions of rustic type that were in use until advanced the second half of the vth century ad. Several aspects of this necropolis are analyzed, among them the buried population and the characterization of the funerary deposit and/or the ritual. The internal organization and its despoilment are also emphasized, which has made it possible to recognize different moments of use in the Late Antiquity. The most outstanding features of these burials in graves are the lack of trousseaux and containers for the funeral feast, the use of coffins and the presence of ritual footwear deposited on one side of the feet

espanolEl objeto del presente estudio consiste en el analisis de «El escopetero», un relato que el escritor uruguayo Carlos Liscano (Montevideo, 1949) incluyo en la recopilacion El charlatan, un volumen perteneciente a la primera fase de su produccion cuentistica (1994). Desde el punto de vista cronologico, el relato se ubica en la etapa de la inmediata posdictadura uruguaya (1973-1985), un momento historico-cultural en que la ficcion local se expresa a traves de la transgresion de generos, la provocacion tematica y las realidades especulares o presentadas desde un sesgo alegorico. Sobre la base de esta condicion historica de transito, el relato de Liscano aborda el motivo de la rebelion civica, amparada ideologicamente por el ocaso del rol del Estado, ya despojado de las herramientas necesarias para su accion garantista y protectora. Este punto de partida –es decir, la aparicion de un vacio que dificulta al estado cualquier intervencion para reducir las injusticias sociales– permite la redaccion de un texto en el que el proposito del protagonista ficcional reside precisamente en reaccionar frente a toda manifestacion de injusticia segun un modelo revolucionario «peculiar». Se intentara demostrar como el relato plantea un juego alegorico basado en la creacion de un grupo humano heterogeneo que actua segun los moldes de una celula revolucionaria sui generis. Debido a la necesidad de encontrar opciones vitales alternativas, frente al abandono por parte del Estado «paternal» de sus instrumentos garantistas y de cuidado del ciudadano, la revolucion de Liscano acontece a traves de la recreacion de tipos fijos, entendidos como simbolos de una dialectica historicopolitica. EnglishThe object of this study consists in the analysis of «El escopetero», a story that the Uruguayan writer Carlos Liscano (Montevideo, 1949) included in the collection El charlatalan, a volume belonging to the first phase of his short story production (1994). From the chronological point of view, the story is located in the stage of the immediate Uruguayan post-dictatorship (1973-1985), a historical and cultural moment in which local fiction expresses itself through the transgression of genres, the thematic provocation and the description of reality from an allegorical perspective. Starting from this historical condition of transit, the story of Liscano is facing the motive of a civic rebellion, ideologically justyfied by the decline of the role of the State, already unable to offer the necessary tools for its protective action. This starting point –the emergence of a vacuum that complicates government’s intervention to reduce social injustices- creates a fictional text in which the purpose of the protagonist resides precisely in reacting to any manifestation of injustice according to a «peculiar» revolutionary model. We will try to demonstrate how the story presents an allegorical structure based on the creation of a heterogeneous human group that acts according to the molds of a sui generis revolutionary side. Due to the need to find alternative vital options, faced with the abandonment by the «paternal» State of its guarantee and citizen care instruments, the Liscano revolution takes place through the recreation of fixed types, as a sort of symbols of a historical and political dialectic.

The objective of this project is to contribute to the development of the student skills of the degree of Agrofood Engineering. In order to do so work was carried out based on an actual professional project adapted to the characteristics of a specific human group: preschool children. The project proposed covered the designing, running, and analysis of data. To guide the process of the carrying out of the project different methodologies were used: master classes, laboratory exercises, discussion forums, oral presentation sessions led by the students, and the writing of technical reports. Assessment was carried out by means of various instruments in accordance with the methodology used: development tests, objective tests, observation scales, and marking templates. Satisfaction questionnaires were used to find out the level of acceptance of the project proposed. The project was carried out for two consecutive academic years. The results show an improvement in the acquiring of knowledge and the development of skills of the students. It was however observed that these improvements are strongly influenced by the students' level of engagement. All those involved expressed a high level of satisfaction with the project.

These scenic parks and reserves are mixed cultural and natural World Heritage site. It comprises a contiguous network of reserve lands extending over much of west-central and southwest Tasmania. The site is geologically and geomorphologically complex, representing the product of at least three major glaciations, and covers an area of more than 1 million hectares. It constitutes one of the last expanses of temperate rainforest in the world. The altitude goes from sea level to 1617 m, and the area is characterized by the presence of steep gorges. Remains found in caves attest to human occupation of the area for more than 35,000 years. The Aborigines who lived there represent the longest isolated human group in world history, surviving hundreds of generations without outside influence.

On September 2, 1666, a fire broke out in a bakery in Pudding Lane in London, and within three days the City of London inside the old Roman City burned down. There had been fire prevention laws, but they had not been observed properly, there had been fire pumps, but they couldn’t reach the fire in time, there had been plans of action, but they were not enacted forcefully.

I distinguish the swarm behaviour from the social one. The swarm behaviour is carried out without symbolic interactions, but it is complex, as well. In this paper, I show that an addictive behaviour of humans can be considered a kind of swarm behaviour, also. The risk of predation is a main reason of reducing symbolic interactions in human group behaviours, but there are possible other reasons like addiction. An addiction increases roles of addictive stimuli (e.g. alcohol, morphine, cocaine, sexual intercourse, gambling, etc.) by their reinforcing and intrinsically rewarding and we start to deal with a swarm. I show that the lateral inhibition and lateral activation are two fundamental patterns in sensing and motoring of swarms. The point is that both patterns allow swarms to occupy several attractants and to avoid several repellents at once. The swarm behaviour of alcoholics follows the lateral inhibition and lateral activation, too. In order to formalize this intelligence, I appeal to modal logics K and its modification K’. The logic K is used to formalize preference relation in the case of lateral inhibition in distributing people to drink jointly and the logic K’ is used to formalize preference relation in the case of lateral activation in distributing people to drink jointly.

espanolFrente al problema de si el Estado laico, la democracia y los derechos humanos deben convertirse en la medida universal de civilizacion o si, por el contrario, debemos dejar que prevalezca la identidad cultural que cada nacion o grupo humano quiera defender para si mismo, el autor de este ensayo postula que una y otra cosa son abstracciones rigidas, que la historia ha demostrado que ni el universalismo ni la identidad cultural poseen una forma inamovible. Ambas son permeables y se debe tener en cuenta esta realidad cuando se esten buscando las formas de un mundo mas civilizado. EnglishAddressing the problem of whether the secular State, democracy and human rights should become the universal measure of civilization or whether, conversely, the cultural identity that each nation or human group wishes to uphold for itself should be allowed to prevail, the author of this essay argues that both of these are rigid abstractions, with history showing that neither universalism nor cultural identity possesses an unchanging form, but that both are permeable. This fact should be borne in mind in the search for the forms of a more civilized world.

This chapter considers the intellectual canons of public sociology draws notably on symbolic interactionism. It describes briefly some aspects of what is been termed "public sociology". Some sociologists might claim that they already know enough and that it is time to emphasize remedial, moral, or activist related objectives. The chapter focuses on a public sociology not only is one in which authenticity is emphasized, but also one that is empirically grounded, and conceptually articulated. Moreover, a scholarly public sociology must be community-based and thereby centrally attentive to human group life as intersubjectively accomplished, relationally engaged, activity minded, and technologically enabled. As well, if it is to have greater intellectual integrity, a public sociology is to be memorably historical and enduringly humanist in its emphasis. Although given an order for presentational purposes, these cannons are best viewed in more holistic terms. Indeed, whereas each denotes a somewhat different emphasis, none can be comprehended apart from the others.

This chapter deals with symbolic interactionism not as a philosophical doctrine but as a perspective in empirical social science-as an approach designed to yield verifiable knowledge of human group life and human conduct. Accordingly, its methodological principles have to meet the fundamental requirements of empirical science. The chapter begins with the redundant assertion that an empirical science presupposes the existence of an empirical world. Such an empirical world exists as something available for observation, study, and analysis. The direct examination of the empirical social world is not limited to the construction of comprehensive and intimate accounts of what takes place. It should also embody analysis. Inspection is the appropriate procedure for carrying out the other part of social analysis – the isolation of relations between analytical elements. Such a relation presumes the existence of a meaningful connection between the components in the empirical world.

[Although smiling and laughter have received considerable attention from researchers, little is known about the way they are displayed in naturally occurring group interactions. This aspect could be crucial if we want to understand the function of affiliative behaviours in social relationships. Naturalistic observations were conducted in areas where people could be watched interacting in small groups. Focal sampling of men and women allowed the recording of smiling and laughter frequencies, as well as group size and composition in terms of age and sex. Overall, smiling and laughter were influenced by group size and age of people involved. Smiling and laughter were also affected by other aspects of social context, depending on the type of behaviour concerned and the sex of individuals. By deriving predictions from three hypotheses — sexual advertisement, social competition, and cooperation — this study revealed that smiling and laughter are likely to be involved in the formation of cooperative relationships., Although smiling and laughter have received considerable attention from researchers, little is known about the way they are displayed in naturally occurring group interactions. This aspect could be crucial if we want to understand the function of affiliative behaviours in social relationships. Naturalistic observations were conducted in areas where people could be watched interacting in small groups. Focal sampling of men and women allowed the recording of smiling and laughter frequencies, as well as group size and composition in terms of age and sex. Overall, smiling and laughter were influenced by group size and age of people involved. Smiling and laughter were also affected by other aspects of social context, depending on the type of behaviour concerned and the sex of individuals. By deriving predictions from three hypotheses — sexual advertisement, social competition, and cooperation — this study revealed that smiling and laughter are likely to be involved in the formation of cooperative relationships.]

A massive and heterogeneous textual corpus whose received version appears in the fifteenth-century Taoist Canon, the Great Peace Scripture (Taiping jing) is the ultimate crystallisation of a set of ideas and beliefs common to an undefined human group during the first centuries of our era. On the assumption that this source and fragments of Weft (wei) texts reflect ideologies located on the margins of official ideology but sharing with it a common, cultural worldview, this paper surveys a cluster of materials related to the themes of human impregnation, the symbolism of gestation, prenatal infancy, birth, and the imagery of layered cosmic cycles. Great Peace adepts imagined turning to their own advantage the dynamics of these cycles in order to initiate a process of ontological reversion to the pristine condition of prenatal infancy and thereby liberate themselves from the lethality of Yin/Yang binary time.

This contribution addresses the issue of reduction of dehumanisation towards Blacks, an outgroup that has been historically targeted by heinous prejudice. The study tested, for the first time, whether the combination of multiple categorisation and human identity represents the most optimal condition for reducing dehumanisation towards Blacks. The main dependent variables were attribution of secondary emotions and inalienability of human rights. Results highlighted the combination of multiple categorisation and human identity as the most effective strategy in reducing dehumanisation towards Blacks. Evidence of this study sheds light on the possible ways through which conceiving others in terms of complex categorical criteria, that is, as members of the human group in conjunction with other communal or different social categories, can lead to more harmonious intergroup relations. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Emile Durkheim may be best known as a structuralist and an empiricist of a distinctively quantitative sort, but a comparatively neglected set of lectures on pragmatism presented by Durkheim just prior to his death suggests that this characterization is only partially justified. Interestingly, whereas Durkheim is critical of pragmatism in some very consequential respects, he not only uses pragmatism to indicate the major shortcomings of rationalist and empiricist approaches to the study of human group life but he also builds on pragmatism as an instructive resource in developing his own thoughts on human knowing and acting. These lectures may help scholars appreciate some of the more enduring tensions in Durkheim’s scholarship, but they also reveal some of the inadequacies of contemporary “sociological theory” with respect to both depictions of the scholarship of Emile Durkheim and the more fundamental study of human knowing and acting.

This article analyses the main aspects of the activities of the late medieval royal chapel, comparing several Iberian Christian monarchies. Three definitions of the chapel were proposed since medieval times: the chapel as a collection of liturgical objects, as the human group devoted to the king's service by performing the Christian cult, and as a specific space inside royal residences. All three were put to use for the reproduction of the specific position of kings in Christian societies, as it was expressed in liturgical activities and in devotional practices. Common patterns and mutual influences are analysed, and the example of two ceremonial practices shows that these were more current than it has been argued by historians of the early modern period.

Although social class, religion, gender, ethnicity and age are often treated as independent variables (e.g., factors, forces, structures) and invoked as causal explanations for various outcomes, this paper approaches these constructs in more distinctive, humanly-engaged terms. Rather than representing forces that almost mysteriously impose themselves on people, these constructs are to be understood more fundamentally as the products and processes of human group life. We are not denying the linkages of social categories with other aspects of community life but contend that these correlates represent comparatively superficial reflections of the much broader underlying sets of processes that characterize social life. Indeed, we argue that it is these sets of humanly engaged social processes rather than correlational research that constitute the more authentic subject matter of the social sciences.

Whereas ethnography is generally envisioned as a nineteenth- and twentieth-century development, a text on How to Write History developed by Lucian (a Greek-speaking Syrian in the classical Roman era) provides an instructive reference point for contemporary scholarship. Envisioning history as an account of some event or developmental feature of community life, Lucian insists that these accounts will be of greatest value when written for posterity rather than “the historical moment.” While identifying a number of lesser flaws and more substantial failures in people's attempts to develop histories, Lucian also indicates how these projects might more viably be pursued. Approaching Lucian's text as an instance of transhistorical scholarship as well as a cross-cultural reference point for ethnographic analysis and building on a somewhat parallel commentary developed by Michael Schwalbe (1995), this article considers the lessons of both statements for contemporary considerations of human group life.

The purpose of this paper is to present the applicability of the \(JaCalIVE\) framework for developing human-agent societies. This kind of applications are those where virtual agents and humans coexist and interact transparently into a fully integrated environment. Specifically, the paper presents an ambient intelligence application where humans are immersed into a system that extracts and analyzes the emotional state of a human group. This social emotion is employed in order to try to maximize the welfare of that humans by playing the most appropriate music in every moment.

La identidad es una forma de autodefinición necesaria para la constitución de cualquier grupo humano. Algunas sociedades necesitan llevar más allá sus procesos identitarios desarrollando, a través de poderes políticos consolidados, sentimientos étnicos de mayor calado ideológico que los identitarios. El paso de la identidad a la etnicidad no es ni obligado ni sencillo, como ilustra el ejemplo elegido, el Monte Liceo, en Arcadia, claro exponente de la fuerza ideológica que alcanzan las definiciones identitarias y los procesos de construcción étnica. Identity is a necessary way of auto-definition in the process of building any human group. Some societies (not many) with strong political forces need to develop their identity process and to build the most powerful ethnic feelings. The building of ethnicity is not a simply task, as can be seen in the case of Mount Lykaion, in Arcadia. This is a clear example of the ideological power which characterizes the identity definitions and the ethnic building process.

Crazy people are often difficult to ignore, especially when they are yelling provocative things like “God is dead” in the midst of a busy marketplace. The madman in Nietzsche’s famous aphorism, however, despite the intensity of his message and style of delivery, was met with relative indifference. When they heard him crying out that he was looking for God, some of the nonbelievers paused long enough to tease him: Has God lost his way like a child? Is he afraid of us? Has he emigrated? The madman jumped into their midst, piercing them with his eyes. “Where is God?” he cried; “I’ll tell you! God is dead! God remains dead! And we have killed him… We are all his murderers. But how did we do this? How were we able to drink up the sea? Who gave us the sponge to wipe away the entire horizon?… Are we not continually falling? And backwards, sidewards, forwards, in all directions? Is there still an up and a down? Aren’t we straying as though through an infinite nothing?” The crowd just looked at him—a bit disconcerted, but silent. Smashing his lantern on the ground, the madman sighed: “I come too early… my time is not yet.”1

A hypothetical model was built, using the STELLA II software program, to test several hunting options for a human hunting group. Different outcomes of possible hunting modes are analysed, such as a change in hunting rate, prey hunted, or species avoided or not avoided by taboos. The model consists of five sectors that reflect a short food chain in an upper Amazonian ecosystem. There is a vegetation sector, a predator sector, and two sectors consisting of browsers and grazers. The last sector represents a human group, known as the Ecuador Achuar. The critical factor analysed is how differences in hunting rate affect a target resource, and how this resource may be affected by general food taboos. The major results of the model are that general food taboos may not be an adaptive short term strategy for hunters, but that a ‘moderate’ hunting mode may be the most effective option for the human group. Since the model is a simplification of the real world, no general conclusions for management should be drawn from the results.

This paper aims to help the reader explore the physicality of human group interactions. Brief historical sketches of primatology, sociology, suggestion and attatchment theory are followed by more modern family and group perspectives. The rest of the paper starts an exploration of the physical feelings, and the subjective and physiological effects of group interactions, with special attention to some social aspects of violence, shared illusions and sexuality. This paper is also intended for patients to read so that they can discuss difficult aspects of their lives more easily with their practitioners.

Stereotypes are “cognitive structures that contain the perceiver’s knowledge, beliefs, and expectations about a human group” (Hamilton & Trolier, 1986, p. 133). In the past 20 years, a great deal of attention has been devoted to understanding how stereotypes influence the perception of individual members of stereotyped groups. This research has shown stereotypes to have a profound impact on many basic cognitive processes that underlie social perception. They determine the kinds of information to which people attend, the ways in which that information is interpreted and encoded, and the manner in which the information is stored in memory and subsequently retrieved. Of course, stereotypes also influence the content of resulting judgments about target individuals as well as perceivers’ behavior toward those individuals (for a review, see Hamilton & Sherman, 1994).

This article aims to trace the messenger's role under the dukes of Valois Burgundy in the early years of the 15th century. The messenger used to be a simple agent to transmit his patron's words after the ambassador's appearance, but the term messageries could still indicate all communicative activities. Public messengers also worked for the duke and his council, although the chevaucheurs de l'ecurie du Duc were the principal body entrusted with the duke's communications. Their activities were not inscribed in the account book of the maitre de la Chambre aux Deniers who financed the duke's household, but in that of the Receveur general du Duc. However, miniatures show a marked difference between the foot messenger and the chevaucheur de l'ecurie. The former cannot be distinguished from the humble people of the age, while the latter declares himself a courtly person by his rich costume. Moreover, the messenger does not seem to hold any ostentatious symbol except for his patron's blazon. The messenger and the chevaucheur de l'ecurie worked together on the communications of the duke of Burgundy in spite of the differences in their origins. They formed a human group around the duke. This naturally led to confusion, and also attests to the duke's intention to eradicate the wasteful parasites in his court.

Man’s either real or imagined encounter with God also, and very frequently, relates to man’s corresponding functioning in, and basic attraction to groups. How groups integrate individuals into their prevailing norms and ideology will now be examined. It is basically an analysis of the group mind, as an equivalent to the so-called group mind of animals in which individuals of the group through evolution have an enhanced ability to survive, be safe, and therefore to be more secure as a direct result of group membership.

In the General Archives of the Argentine Nation there is a large file that deals with the issue of the demolition of the Jesuit Church in Asuncion, subject which Furlong dealt with somewhat superfi cially, when he worked on the theme of his book on the architects of the River Plate. It is about a great argument made by the Spanish engineer Julio Ramon de Cesar, who tries to preserve a Jesuit building. Moreover, it contains a contemporary testimony that envisages the attempts to erase from the memory the presence of the Jesuits. A very frequently used approach when the purpose is to decimate the identity of the peoples: erase both the oral as well as the written memory, and also their architetural memory. This paper attempts to rescue that memory so as to reveal the intentions of a human group that acted in a time that was unfavorable to the Jesuits. Key words: Jesuit Church of Asuncion, engineer Julio Ramon de Cesar, cultural heritage.

Occupational structure of people is one of the significant determinants of human group disparities in socio-economic development. Various development indicators substantiate that women lag behind men in most of yardsticks that measure gender justice and human development, occupation is one of them. A country or society can’t realize its dream of becoming super power by ignoring the better half of the humanity. This study aims to investigate Muslim women work participation in West Bengal based on population census in 2001, as the results have indicated that Muslims constitute 13.4 per cent of the country and 25.25 per cent of West Bengal’s population. Indeed, it is the second largest religious minority community in the country. Sex ratio among Muslim population is 933 in West Bengal, which is higher than the national level. Illiteracy rate of Muslim women is higher and they have not been able to take full advantage in society. There also exists a wide gap between males and females work participation rate. Besides, a significant proportion of Muslim women are recorded as unskilled in the state. Keeping these points in view the present study analyses Muslim women work participation in West Bengal in general and by occupational groups in particular.

Can we postulate that a line of distinction could be drawn between developing and developed countries with regard to the functionality of prevailing literacies? The multilayered perception of literacy and the interpretive ambiguity surrounding functionality, in addition to the lack of focused treatment of the issue in the literature, complicate such an attempt considerably. Functionality can be referred to as a moving range to be located and periodically relocated on the illiteracy-literacy continuum. Two notions are found to be of interest in this analysis: restricted literacy in the sense used by Goody; and functional penetration, referred to by Levine as the range of activities and transactions in which literacy is institutionalized for a human group.

Suramin is a polysulphonated napthylurea antiprotozoal and anthelminitic drug, which also presents inhibitory activity against a broad range of enzymes. Here we evaluate the effect of suramin on the hydrolytic and biological activities of secreted human group IIA phospholipase A(2) (hsPLA(2)GIIA).The hsPLA(2)GIIA was expressed in E. coli, and refolded from inclusion bodies. The hydrolytic activity of the recombinant enzyme was measured using mixed dioleoylphosphatidylcholine/dioleoylphosphatidylglycerol (DOPC/DOPG) liposomes. The activation of macrophage cell line RAW 264.7 by hsPLA(2) GIIA was monitored by NO release, and bactericidal activity against Micrococcus luteus was evaluated by colony counting and by flow cytometry using the fluorescent probe Sytox Green.The hydrolytic activity of the hsPLA(2) GIIA was inhibited by a concentration of 100 nM suramin and the activation of macrophages by hsPLA(2) GIIA was abolished at protein/suramin molar ratios where the hydrolytic activity of the enzyme was inhibited. In contrast, both the bactericidal activity of hsPLA(2) GIIA against Micrococcus luteus and permeabilization of the bacterial inner membrane were unaffected by suramin concentrations up to 50 microM.These results demonstrate that suramin selectively inhibits the activity of the hsPLA(2) GIIA against macrophages, whilst leaving the anti-bacterial function unchanged.

The possibility to interpret prehistoric tools function, that in many cases constitutes the only preserved evidence of a certain human group activities, allows to acquire information on the poor knowledge of prehistoric daily way of life such as subsistence strategies and environmental exploitation adopted during prehistory. Starting with the English translation, in 1964, of the reference work of the sovietic archaeologist S. A. Semenov Prehistoric Technology, the discipline of functional analysis on prehistoric stone tools became more and more diffused since becoming nowadays a very significant issue for the studies on stone tools operative chains. The method is based on the recognition of the microscopic alterations that endures the surface of stone tools (among which flint is one of the most used) when the rock surface enters in contact with the worked material. The information that can be obtained from this type of study regard the activity carried out by the implement (its cinematic e.g. to abrade, to cut) and the worked material (skin, bone, wood). The heuristic devices suitable for the observation of use-wear traces are currently optical and electronic microscopes (metallographic microscope, SEM and AFM). In this paper we propose an overview on such methodological application in the field of prehistoric studies with reference to the on going research.

Trying to understand morality has been a central human preoccupation for as far back as human history extends, and for very good reasons. The core phenomenon is readily observable: we humans judge each other’s behaviour as right or wrong, and each other’s selves as moral or immoral. If others view you as moral, you will thrive in the bosom of a human group. If, however, others view you as immoral, you are in deep trouble; you may even die young, either at the hands of others, or alone in the bush. These are very good reasons indeed for close attention to morality.

El siguiente artículo surge como reflexión del grupo de investigación Sujetos y Nuevas Narrativas en la Investigación y Enseñanza de las Ciencias Sociales de la Universidad Pedagógica Nacional, adscrito a Colciencias y coordinado por el investigador Alfonso Torres Carrillo. El objeto del mismo es aportar elementos de reflexión en torno a la categoría comunidad, leída en el contexto escolar como comunidad educativa, en aras de pensar el ejercicio de principios comunitarios en la escuela. Esto con la intensión de volver dicha institución, critica de su lugar dentro de la sociedad y sensible a las necesidades del grupo humano en el cual se encuentra. Para ello, iniciamos haciendo una breve revisión conceptual sobre el término comunidad. A continuación, reunimos algunas de las reflexiones planteadas en torno a la comunidad educativa como categoría de análisis, pero además, como proyecto vivencial de un grupo determinado. A manera de cierre, recogemos los aportes que, a nuestro criterio, la comunidad educativa como realidad posible, puede hacer al contexto escolar, al entenderla como proyecto de potenciación democrática y medio para permear la escuela de realidades más críticas e incluyentes.

Trophy taking is the act of removing human body parts from a living or recently deceased victim or foe, when the body part functions as a souvenir that marks the act of conquering or controlling another human being or human group. Trophy taking can be used as an act of revenge between certain factions of people, or to prove to a superior that a killing has been carried out. But the practice can also be done as a component of war, whether ritualized or as an impulse, done in the passion of the moment. Trophy taking has been done for thousands of years, and is still practiced in today’s world in some circumstances. The purposes of this chapter are to first review the criteria for evaluating whether or not a human remain should be considered as a legitimate trophy when found in an archaeological context. Second, some previously unpublished cases of decapitation and cannibalism from the central and lower Mississippi Valley, plus a site with one feature exhibiting multiple scalping and decapitation cases from southeastern Tennessee, will be presented. The final section is a review of sites in the continental United States where trophy taking and/or cannibalism has been verified, using the criteria established in the early part of the chapter. This review will demonstrate that trophy taking had two discrete origins in the United States, first from a temporal and second from a spatial standpoint, and that the practice spread across cultural areas on a timeline.

Se analiza el uso de las producciones artisticas como factor de division interna de sociedades cazadoras recolectoras. Se enfatiza la manipulacion del arte visual como fuente de poder y, por lo tanto, de division social interna a un grupo humano, incluso en sociedades cazadoras-recolectoras en las cuales no se observa acumulacion de excedente. Los conceptos planteados se aplican al estudio del uso de pinturas corporales por grupos selk'nam y yamana (Tierra del Fuego). Se identifican algunas de las dinamicas de division social generadas mediante el uso de pinturas corporales, diferenciando dos tendencias: una centrada en marcar visualmente roles sociales previamente asumidos por los individuos y otra centrada en el proceso de construccion de roles sociales mediado por la aplicacion, muestra y observacion de pinturas. En cada caso, se enfatiza el impacto activo de la manipulacion de estas imagenes dentro de la vida social de los grupos estudiadosPalabras clave : cazadores recolectores; Tierra del Fuego; pintura corporal; division social. AbstractThis paper analyses the use of artistic productions as means of internal social division in hunter-gatherer groups. The manipulation of visual art is presented as a source of power and hence of internal social division in a human group. Such concept is shown to be relevant in understanding some dynamics of art use in hunter-gatherer societies, in which no surplus accumulation has been documented. These concepts are applied to the study of the use of body paintings by the Selk'nam and Yamana (Tierra del Fuego). Some of the social division dynamics generated through the use of body paintings are thus identified: one in which paint is used to visually marks previously existing social roles, and another one in which paint is actively involved in the construction of social roles through its production, display and observation. In each case, the active impact of the manipulation of these images in the social life of the groups under study is emphasisedPalabras clave : hunter-gatherers; Tierra del Fuego; body painting; social division.

This paper tries to analyze childhood during the Iron Age "lberian Culture", a topic which has received almost no attention up to now. Every society must find an efficient system in order to transmit to their descendants the body of principles and rules that constitute its foundations, as this is essential to its perpetuation. The way children are treated is a window through which we can discover some keys of the social and ideological organization of any human group. Different archaeological contexts of lberian infancy are here analyzed, and some hypothesis are offered about how lberians organized the different stages of growth, from birth until youth.Este trabajo pretende atraer la atención sobre un tema aún poco tratado en los estudios sobre la cultura ibérica, como es el análisis de la infancia. Toda sociedad debe arbitrar un sistema eficaz para transmitir a sus descendientes los principios en los que se fundamenta, puesto que ello depende su propia perpetuación. El trato otorgado a los niños es por tanto una ventana para descubrir las claves de la organización social e ideológica de cualquier grupo humano. Se analizan los distintos contextos arqueológicos en los que se aprecia presencia infantil, y se aportan hipótesis acerca de la valoración y de las distintas fases de desarrollo que debieron reconocerse en el mundo ibérico desde el nacimiento de un bebé hasta su entrada en la fase juvenil.

Siguiendo el camino trazado por el fenomenólogo francés HenryDuméry, se busca señalar aquí los rasgos propios de lo que se ha dado en llamar en otra ocasión lo «sagrado histórico» comprendido en el nmarco general de una «morfología de lo sagrado». Así la intención es la de mostrar que la originalidad de la experiencia y la configuración de lo sagrado, tanto en el judaísmo como en el cristianismo, tiene su origen en una transformación revolucionaria de las experiencias y concepciones de lo sagrado cósmico y arcaico, dando lugar de esta manera a un nuevo modo de sacralidad en el que el acento principal está puesto en los eventos y personas de la historia. Más aun, hacer ver que integrando en esa nueva modalidad formas y experiencia universales, aquellas religiones llegan a una concepción paradójica de la salvación en la que lo universal se da en la historia particular de un grupo humano (Israel) o una persona (Jesús de Nazareth).

A simple cellular automata model is used to simulate some aspects of the expansion of the Assyrian empire from the XIV to the VII century b.C. The model assumes that an “Assyrian cell” expands to neighboring cells based on five factors: (1) the physical and (2) political penetrability of cells, (3) the initial expansive force of the Assyrians, (4) the decay of local expansive force with increasing distance from the originary cell, (5) the increase in expansive force due to locally acquired resources. We discuss various methodological issues and the generality of the model.

Desde los orígenes de la humanidad, en todas las civilizaciones, el proto­ colo ha sido el elemento ordenador de los ámbitos espacio-temporales en los que ha tenido lugar cualquier aparición pública o manifestación exter­ na de aquellas personas o grupos que han ejercido el poder. Aparece en cualquier grupo humano y período histórico, sin discernir sobre el carácter legítimo o ilegítimo de ese poder: ordena las actuaciones y los espacios públicos donde se ejerce con criterios prácticos, al margen de regímenes políticos y formas que éstos adopten (totalitarios o democráticos, repúbli­ cas o monarquías). From the origins of humanity, in all civilizations, proto colo has been the computer element of the spatio-temporal spheres in which any public appearance or external manifestation of those persons or groups that have exercised power has taken place. It appears in any human group and historical period, without discerning about the legitimate or illegitimate nature of that power: it orders actions and public spaces where it is exercised with practical criteria, regardless of political regimes and forms that they adopt (totalitarian or democratic, republics or monarchies).

In this selection, from the American Journal of Sociology (1938), sociologist Louis Wirth first proposes a working concept of what cities are and then moves on to what he calls a “sociological definition” of modern urban life as he saw it in the Chicago of the 1930s. The working concept is that all cities have three key characteristics common – large population size, social heterogeneity, and population density. These, he asserts, contribute to the development of a peculiarly “urban way of life” and, indeed, a distinct “urban personality.” According to Wirth, a “sociologically significant definition of the city,” looks beyond the mere physical structure of the city, or its economic product, or its characteristic cultural institutions – however important all these may be – to discover those underlying “elements of urbanism which mark it as a distinctive mode of human group life.” In an analysis that many find bleak, he sees real personality differences between urban and rural people and between community-based and society-based styles of living. He explains those differences in terms of the functional responses of urban dwellers to the characteristic environmental conditions of modern urban society. If, for example, city people are regarded as rather more socially tolerant that rural people – and, at the same time, more impersonal and seemingly less friendly – these are merely adaptations to the experience of living in large, dense, socially diverse urban environments.

The problem of intersubjectivity arises in Mead’s work as early as in his 1903 article entitled “The Definition of the Psychical”.1 Pursuing his previous attempts to delineate the nature of individual consciousness as the creative aspect of problem-solving conduct in the social world, Mead recognized that this creative individual consciousness stands in contrast to the empirical self and other selves of the social world insofar as it reconstructs them in its reflective activity. Thus, creative individual consciousness can be “neither me nor other”.2 The problem of intersubjectivity is viewed by Mead, then, as a question concerning the relationship between the creative nature of individual consciousness and the social world in which the empirical self is itself embedded.

The question of identity is fundamental to human life. “Who am I,” as a biological and psychological being; as a member of a human group with a particular style and history; as a participant in the common human values, perceptions, and processes which transcend any particular group? Ethnic studies should have as its focus the whole human being, articulated in the biological, socio/cultural, and psycho/personal categories, and the methodology for ethnic studies should reflect the process by which people live and move within the named categories. The interaction of people who are self-consciously engaged in exploring their lives biologically, culturally, and personally, and the articulation of the boundaries at which these interactions take place, determines the scope and content of ethnic studies.

Because of their close contact with the actual flow of human group life, qualitative research projects frequently have as a bonus the development of insightful concepts of generic quality that catch some essence of social interaction and/or structural conditions. Yet little attention has been paid to the way these concepts are modified and strengthenedover a series of projects. The lack of regard for this methodological issue may lead to the false impression that qualitative research is not cumulative. In this paper, I urge qualitative sociologists to be aware of cumulative concept development as a major methodological tool, and to demonstrate how concepts derived from one research project are extended and modified in subsequent projects. Additionally, I show how this approach aids in both illuminating aspects of a given research context, while at the same time drawing attention to hitherto unnoted relationships among concepts. In this way, more systematic strategies for developing generic concepts and cumulative understanding of human group life through qualitative research is possible.

Food is central to our sense of identity. The way any given human group eats helps it assert its diversity, hierarchy and organisation, but also, at the same time, both its oneness and the otherness of whoever eats differently. Food is also central to individual identity, in that any given human individual is constructed, biologically, psychologically and socially by the foods he/she choses to incorporate. This paper is intended as a speculative survey of the ways in which food is related to identity formation.