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Physical dating aggression is a prevalent and costly public health concern. A theoretical moderator model of substance use and dating aggression posits that associations between them are moderated by relational risk factors. To test these theoretical expectations, the current study examined seven waves of longitudinal data on a community-based sample of 100 male and 100 female participants in a Western U.S. city (M age Wave 1 = 15.83; 69.5% White non-Hispanic, 12.5% Hispanic, 11.5% African Americans, & 12.5% Hispanics). Multilevel models examined how links between substance use and dating aggression varied by relational risk and how these patterns changed developmentally. Main effects of relational risk and substance use emerged, particularly in adolescence. In young adulthood significant three-way interactions emerged such that substance use was more strongly associated with physical aggression when conflict and jealousy were higher. Thus, relational risk factors are integral to models of dating aggression, but their role changes developmentally.

The present study explored how romantic relationship qualities develop with age and relationship length. Eight waves of data on romantic relationships were collected over 10.5 years during adolescence and early adulthood from a community-based sample in a Western U.S. city (100 males, 100 females; M age Wave 1 = 15.83). Measures of support, negative interactions, control, and jealousy were derived from interviews and questionnaire measures. Using multilevel modeling, main effects of age were found for jealousy, and main effects of relationship length were found for each quality. However, main effects were qualified by significant age by length interactions for each and every relationship quality. Short relationships increased in support with age. In comparison, long-term adolescent relationships were notable in that they were both supportive and turbulent, with elevated levels of support, negative interactions, control, and jealousy. With age, long-term relationships continued to have high levels of support, but decreased in negative interactions, control, and jealousy. Present findings highlight how the interplay between age and relationship length is key for understanding the development of romantic relationships. (PsycINFO Database Record

Little is known about the effect of sexual coercion on romantic relationship quality and dating experiences. The current study aimed to address this dearth in the literature and test the hypothesis that sexual coercion has a negative impact on victims' subsequent romantic experiences. Using a sample of 94 youth (44 males and 50 females), the current study addressed the impact of sexual coercion on romantic relationship quality and dating experiences. Tracking youth for 8.5 years (M age at Wave 1 = 15.10 years, SD = .49), the current study used piecewise growth curve modeling to account for shifts in the intercept and slope of romantic experiences following sexual coercion. Negative interactions immediately increased following coercion and continued to have an accelerated rate of growth (i.e., a slope change). Jealousy in romantic relationships increased in slope. Serious dating decelerated following the coercive incident. Results were largely consistent across gender and severity of the coercive incident. Contrary to hypotheses, relational support, relationship satisfaction, and casual dating did not significantly change following sexual coercion. Consistent with hypotheses, sexual coercion had a negative impact on romantic experiences. These findings have clinical implications for both prevention and intervention around sexual violence. In addition, the consistency of findings across gender and severity suggests that increased focus should be directed toward both male sexual coercion and less severe sexual coercion.

This paper describes an alternative version of the Network of Relationships Inventory, which was designed to assess how frequently different relationships were used to fulfill the functions of three behavioral systems: attachment, caregiving, and affiliation. Psychometric and validational evidence is presented including: (a) high internal consistency for all scales and composites; (b) a second order factor structure of support and negative interactions for each relationship; (c) moderately high stability over a one year period; (d) moderate convergence among different reporters; (e) theoretically meaningful differences among different relationships; (f) moderate associations among different relationships; (g) associations with the original Network of Relationships Inventory; and (h) relations with observed interactions with mothers and friends.

This study examined how parent—adolescent relationship qualities and adolescents’ representations of relationships with parents were related to interactions in 200 adolescent—close friend dyads. Adolescents and friends were observed discussing problems during a series of structured tasks. Negative interactions with mothers were significantly related to adolescents’ greater conflict with friends, poorer focus on tasks, and poorer communication skills. Security of working models (as assessed by interview) was significantly associated with qualities of friendship interactions, whereas security of attachment styles (as assessed by questionnaire) was not. More dismissing (versus secure) working models were associated with poorer focus on problem discussions and weaker communication skills with friends, even after accounting for gender differences and current parent—adolescent relationship qualities.

This study used a social exchange framework to examine the features of non-romantic other-sex (OS) friendships compared with same-sex (SS) friendships and romantic relationships. High school seniors (N = 141) completed open-ended interviews about the benefits and costs of having OS friendships, SS friendships, and romantic relationships in general. As expected, perspective taking, learning about the other sex, and meeting the other sex were seen as rewards of OS friendships more often than for SS friendships and romantic relationships. Confusion about the nature of the relationship was seen as a cost of OS friendships more often than of SS friendships and romantic relationships. Intimacy, support, and companionship were mentioned less often as rewards of OS friendships than romantic relationships. Adolescents also completed questionnaires about their own specific relationships of each type. Their OS friendships were perceived as less supportive than their other two relationships; OS friendships were also seen as having fewer negative interactions than romantic relationships. Our findings expand the application of social exchange theory and lend empirical support to prior speculations about OS friendships and their importance in adolescents' social worlds.

Dating aggression is a prevalent and costly public health concern. Using a relational risk framework, this study examined acute and chronic relational risk factors (negative interactions, jealousy, support, & relationship satisfaction) and their effects on physical and psychological dating aggression. The study also examined the interaction between chronic and acute risk, allowing us to assess how changes in acute risk have differing effects depending on whether the individual is typically at higher chronic risk. A sample of 200 youth (100 female) completed seven waves of data, which spanned nine years from middle adolescence to young adulthood (M age at Wave 1 = 15.83). Using hierarchical linear modeling, analyses revealed both acute (within-person) and chronic (between-person) levels in jealousy, negative interactions, and relationship satisfaction, were associated with physical and psychological dating aggression. Significant interactions between chronic and acute risk emerged in predicting physical aggression for negative interactions, jealousy, and relationship satisfaction such that those with higher levels of chronic risk are more vulnerable to increases in acute risk. These interactions between chronic and acute risk indicate that risk is not static, and dating aggression is particularly likely to occur at certain times for youth at high risk for dating aggression. Such periods of increased risk may provide opportunities for interventions to be particularly effective in preventing dating aggression or its consequences. Taken together, these findings provide support for the role of relational risk factors for dating aggression. They also underscore the importance of considering risk dynamically.

This study examined how same–sex peers influence young women's body image and mood. Eighty female undergraduates were randomly assigned to observe one of two different prearranged conversations between confederates. In one conversation condition, one confederate pressured the other to be thin. In the other conversation condition, one confederate provided positive encouragement to the other about her body image. There was no main effect of condition. Instead, social comparison tendency and appearance orientation moderated the effects of pressure to be thin on body image. Females high on these dimensions were particularly vulnerable to peer pressure to be thin. Similar findings were found with respect to positive and negative emotions. The findings contribute to our understanding of how same–sex peers influence young women's body image and mood.

A two-year longitudinal investigation examined adolescents' (N = 100 girls and 99 boys) perceptions of social support in relationships with mothers, close friends, and romantic partners from Grade 10 (ages 14–16) to Grade 12 (ages 16–18). Adolescents, mothers, and close friends also provided descriptions of the participants' global self-worth and interpersonal competence. Variable-centered and person-centered analyses revealed that perceived social support tends to be similar across relationships and stable over time. Variable-centered analyses indicated that social support in mother-adolescent relationships was uniquely related to adolescent global self-worth; that social support in close friendships was uniquely related to social acceptance, friendship competence, and romantic competence; and that social support in romantic relationships was uniquely related to romantic competence. Person-centered analyses indicated that adolescents who reported high social support in all three relationships had higher self-worth and greater interpersonal competence than those who did not have a romantic relationship and who reported low social support in relationships with mothers and close friends; and that scores for adolescents who had a romantic [End Page 572] relationship but who reported low social support in all three relationships fell in between these two groups. Taken together, variable-centered analyses suggest that different relationships influence different dimensions of competence, but person-centered analyses indicate that a sizable proportion of adolescents have relationships that act in concert with one another.

It is believed that by adulthood, independent attachments to the mother and the father coalesce into a single state of mind with respect to attachment. If true, states of mind with respect to mothers and fathers should be concordant. Fifty-six young adults were administered two versions of the Adult Attachment Interview, each of which asked about their relationship with one parent. State of mind with respect to the father was significantly related to state of mind with respect to the mother, as were attachment styles regarding the two parents. Perceptions of attachment styles were not very related to corresponding states of mind but were related to inferred loving from a parent.

This study examined the links among adolescents' representations of their relationships with parents, friends, and romantic partners. Sixty-eight adolescents were interviewed three times to assess their working models for each of these types of relationships. Working models of friendships were related to working models of relationships with parents and romantic partners. Working models of relationships with parents and romantic partners were inconsistently related. A similar pattern of results was obtained for self-report measures of relational styles for the three types of relationships. Perceived experiences were also related. Specifically, support in relationships with parents tended to be related to support in romantic relationships and friendships, but the latter two were unrelated. On the other hand, self and other controlling behaviors in friendships were related to corresponding behaviors in romantic relationships. Negative interactions in the three types of relationships also tended to be related. Taken together, the findings indicate that the representations of the three types of relationships are distinct, yet related. Discussion focuses on the nature of the links among the three.

The present study examined the development of friendship conceptions from 4 to 7 years of age. Subjects were administered an open-ended interview, a picture recognition task, and a forced-choice rating task in which they identified the most important characteristics of friendship. Common activities, affection, support, and propinquity were all found to be salient aspects of most children's conceptions. Friendship expectations concerning affection and support increased m frequency with age, while references to physical characteristics decreased. In general, parallel findings were found on the 3 measures, although the results were not as strong on the open-ended interview. The findings suggest that children first learn the overt characteristics of the occupants of the role of friend, but as they grow older they place increasing emphasis on affectively based characteristics.

The purpose of this study was to determine if a narrative technique based on the Adult Attachment Interview could be used for studying working models of friendships. A Friendship Interview was developed and administered to a sample of 68 high school seniors. Theoretically coherent factors reflecting friendship experiences and working models were obtained. Ratings of dyadic support from friends were related to secure working models, and inversely related to dismissing working models. Ratings of friend controlling-self dependent behavior and self controlling-friend dependent behavior were related to preoccupied working models. Ratings of experiences in friendships were related to self-perceptions of friendships. Working models were related to self-perceptions of relational styles and attachment styles.

Adolescents' peer structures and the quality of their friendships were explored as antecedents of romantic relationships. Longitudinal data were gathered in a sample of 180 high school students over a 3-year period from grade 9 to grade 11. Consistent with Dunphy (1963), small groups of close friends were predictive of other-sex peer networks which were, in turn predictive of the emergence of future romantic relationships. Indirect effects were found for same-sex groups of close friends and same-sex networks. Consistent with Furman and Wehner (1994), the qualitative features of relationships with both friends and romantic partners were predictive of the qualitative features of subsequent romantic experiences. These linkages suggest ways in which peer relationships may support romantic development at this stage of the life cycle.

The articles in this special issue tell a story of adolescence--a remarkably consistent and coherent story. It is a story of the emergence of other-sex relationships of the change from the predominantly same-sex peer networks of preadolescents to the networks of adolescents containing several new forms of other-sex relationships. These papers highlight the richness of these relationships and the individual dyadic and contextual factors that influence and are influenced by the emergence of these relationships in the adolescent social arena. It is a story that is only now being told by social scientists and one to which these papers contribute substantially. In our commentary we summarize our rendition of this story highlight the key themes in these papers and point out the chapters that remain to be written in this story of adolescent other-sex relationships. (excerpt)

Intimate partner violence often begins during the courtship stage of romantic relationships. Although some relationships dissolve as a result of aggression, other relationships remain intact, increasing the risk for escalated violence. The present study identified factors predictive of individual differences in emerging adults’ commitment to physically aggressive or sexually coercive dating relationships. Specifically, Rusbult’s Investment Model of romantic relationships (e.g., investment, satisfaction, quality of alternatives, and commitment) was applied to a longitudinal sample of 148 young adult women who reported experiencing aggression or coercion from their current partners. To further explain commitment within aggressive or coercive dating relationships, rejection sensitivity and anxious and avoidant romantic relational styles were included as predictors of the Investment Model variables. A more avoidant romantic style indirectly predicted commitment through relationship satisfaction and investment. Both commitment and rejection sensitivity significantly predicted continuing an aggressive or coercive relationship 6 months later. The present study improves our understanding of the processes involved in relationship commitment. Continuing to understand these processes will inform interventions that seek to help women who have decided to end aggressive or coercive dating relationships.

When adolescents begin using substances, negative consequences are not always directly proportional to the amount used; heavy users may have few consequences whereas light users may have numerous consequences. This study examined how parental monitoring knowledge and parent-child relationship quality may serve as buffers against negative consequences when adolescents use substances. Self-report questionnaires were administered to a community sample of 200 healthy adolescents and their parents at two time points, one year apart. Results suggest that both parental monitoring knowledge and parent-child relationship quality serve as buffers against negative consequences of substance use – but only when adolescents report high levels of monitoring knowledge or strong parent-child relationship quality. Results suggests adolescent perceived parental monitoring knowledge and parent-child relationship quality each act independently to buffer adolescents against negative consequences of substance use over a one-year period.

The present study examined factors associated with harmony in adolescent girls' relationships with their mothers and their best friends. A framework was proposed in which relationship harmony was expected to be related to individual characteristics of each partner and the match between the individual characteristics of each partner. 60 adolescent girls, their mothers, and their best friends participated in self-report and observational tasks. Harmonious mother-daughter partners (vs. disharmonious ones) had more similar needs, felt their needs were better met, perceived their partners as more socially skilled, and had more similar interests. Harmonious friends (vs. disharmonious ones) had more similar needs, and target adolescents perceived partners to be more socially skilled and better at meeting their needs. Observational ratings of attunement, positive affect, and power negotiation were greater in harmonious relationships with both mothers and friends. Discussion focuses on the value of a common framework for studying different relationships.

The current study examined longitudinal associations between friend's substance use, friendship quality, parent-adolescent relationship quality and subsequent substance use. Participants were 166 adolescents, their parents and their close same-sex friends. Measures of relationship characteristics in the 10(th) grade were used to predict concurrent substance use and changes in substance use over a one-year period. The most consistent predictor of the use of different substances and changes in substance use over time was the friend's substance using behavior. Negative interactions with a friend were related only to tobacco use, and friendship support neither contributed to nor protected against substance use. Mother-adolescent relationship support was associated with lower levels of concurrent substance use, as well as lower levels of hard drug use over time. Findings highlight the need to examine parents and peers simultaneously and the importance of parental relationships and peer behavior on adolescent substance use. Limitations and future directions are discussed.

One of Bowlby’s (1969) important ideas was that individuals develop mental representations of their relationships with others. Such representations guide their behavior with others and serve as a basis for predicting and interpreting others’ behavior. The purpose of the present study was to examine how such representations of romantic relationships are related to genital, light and heavy nongenital, and risky sexual behavior in adolescence. Based on behavioral systems theory (Furman & Wehner, 1994), we conceptualized such representations of romantic relationships as expectations regarding intimacy and closeness with respect to the attachment, affiliative, caregiving and sexual/reproductive systems in romantic relationships (Furman & Simon, 1999). This conceptualization resembles attachment theorists’ conceptualization of attachment-related mental representations (see Mikulincer & Shaver, 2008), but incorporates representations regarding affiliation, caretaking, and sexuality, as well as attachment. Representations of these other behavioral systems were incorporated as each of the different behavioral systems are central in romantic relationships (Furman & Wehner, 1994; Hazan & Shaver, 1988); thus, we anticipated that romantic representations would incorporate experiences and interactions relevant to all behavioral systems and not solely the attachment system. Similar to attachment theorists, we characterize individual differences in mental representations in terms of the continuous dimensions of avoidance and anxiety with regard to romantic relationships. Those who are avoidant in romantic relationships are not comfortable with intimacy and prefer self-reliance; thus, they are unlikely to turn to their partners, don’t like being turned to, are not very invested in a relationship, and see sexuality as an opportunity for self-gratification. Those who are anxious regarding romantic relationships may worry about rejection and be overly dependent on others for support and esteem; they may find it difficult to feel comforted by a partner when distressed, be overly concerned about a partner's sexual satisfaction or problems (i.e., compulsive caretaking) and overly invest in relationships in a self-sacrificing manner. As can be seen, the present behavioral systems theory conceptualization of mental representations is relatively similar to attachment theory’s conceptualizations of such representations. In fact, the differences in conceptualization are not particularly pertinent to the present study. We believe that the two theories would use similar theoretical arguments and make the same predictions regarding the links with sexual behavior that are examined here. Moreover, attachment researchers conducted most of the relevant research examining the links between representations and sexual behavior in adults.

Currently, little attention is paid to theory in the field of adolescent friendship. Using the chapters in this volume as background, the author delineates a series of questions that must be addressed by theorists and empirical investigators alike.

Using a sample of 199 adolescents, the present study examined Furman and Wehner’s (1999) hypothesis that the predictors of the degree of romantic involvement and the predictors of romantic relationship cognitions and qualities differ. As hypothesized, physical appearance and friends’ normative romantic involvement were related to the degree of casual and serious romantic involvement, whereas relational styles regarding friends and parents were unrelated in almost all cases. On the other hand, relational styles regarding friends and parents were related to supportive and negative romantic interactions and romantic styles,. In contrast, physical appearance and friends’ normative romantic involvement were generally unrelated to interactions and romantic styles. Physical appearance was also related to romantic appeal and satisfaction.

This study examined associations between interparental conflict and adolescents' romantic relationship conflict. High school seniors (N=183) who lived with married parents completed questionnaires about their parents' marriage and their own romantic relationships. A subset of 88 adolescents was also observed interacting with their romantic partners. Adolescents' perceptions and appraisals of interparental conflict were related to the amount of conflict in romantic relationship and adolescents' conflict styles. Adolescents' appraisals of interparental conflict (i.e., self-blame, perceived threat) moderated many of the associations between interparental conflict and conflict behavior with romantic partners. The patterns of moderated effects differed by gender. These findings suggest that the meanings boys and girls ascribe to interparental conflict are important for understanding how family experiences contribute to the development of romantic relationships.

Adolescent romantic relationships have long been a centerpiece of our mediaculture. Romeo and Juliet and Dante and Beatrice are classic love stories thathave enchanted generations of individuals. Today’s movies are full of similartales, such as that between Jack Dawson and Rose DeWitt Bukater in the movieTitanic. In effect, these relationships are depicted in idealized terms. They areseen as very special and essential in one’s life. In fact, many young adolescentgirls say that they expect to be in love all the time (Simon, Eder, & Evans, 1972).Although our own adolescent relationships may not have been as idealized,many of us still reflect on them with fondness. They were important andexciting experiences in our adolescence. In fact, adolescents will commonlyneglect their close friends in order to spend time with a romantic partner (Roth& Parker, 2001). Consistent with this depiction, social scientists have foundthat adolescents have more strong positive emotions about the other sex thanabout family, same-sex peers, or school (Wilson-Shockley, 1995). Although nodirect evidence exists, we believe that homosexual youth may have morestrong positive emotions about same-sex relationships than about other keyrelationships.Romantic partners also increasingly become sources of support. For example,in an earlier study (Furman & Buhrmester, 1992), we examined age dif-ferences in perceptions of support in different relationships. Mean ratings ofsupport for relationships with romantic partners, same-sex friends, mothers,siblings, grandparents and teachers at four different grades are shown inTable 4.1. Not surprisingly, fourth grade children (10–11 years) were unlikelyto report having a romantic partner, and those who said they had a romantic

For many adolescents romantic life begins as a journey from the social scripts they consumed in books television and movies to fantasized and direct experiences with real partners. This journey from a peer network that eschews romantic ties of any kind to one that encourages them is fraught with uncertainties about how to feel think and act. How do I get someone to like me? Why is everyone going out but me? How can I tell if someone really cares about me? What are these butterflies doing in my stomach? What do we talk about? For most American youth confronting such uncertainties is a central yet challenging part of establishing romantic relationships. For youth who were abused as children or who are victimized in their romantic relationships the task may be particularly difficult. Although it is reasonable to expect that past victimization or victimization in romantic relationships would alter the developmental course of romantic experiences we know remarkably little about the topic. Investigators studying victimization and those studying romantic relationships have had little contact with each other. The goal of this focus section is to help foster an integration of the research on adolescent romantic life with that on victimization. The articles present theory and findings from scholars in the areas of adolescent romantic relationships and maltreatment. (excerpt)

An attachment perspective is proposed as a framework for conceptualizing the impact of sexual victimization on close relationships. Two studies were conducted to empirically examine the links between sexual victimization and perceptions of romantic, parental, and peer relationships. Study One included 154 undergraduate women, and Study Two included 48 high school seniors. In both studies, approximately half the women reported having experienced some form of coerced sexual experience. The majority were victimized by an acquaintance, and most victims had experienced multiple incidents. The first study found that victimized women had significantly more preoccupied romantic views than nonvictimized women. Retrospective reports indicated that women victimized in college were significantly more dismissing with their fathers in high school. In Study Two, victims reported more negative interactions with romantic partners, but no differences were found for romantic styles. Victims also reported more dismissing parental styles and more negative interactions with their fathers than nonvictims.

A framework for examining developmental changes in romantic relationships is presented. The chapter describes research illustrating these developmental differences and delineates an agenda for subsequent developmental work.

In this study, 549 youths in the fourth grade, seventh grade, tenth grade, and college completed Network of Relationship Inventories assessing their perceptions of their relationships with significant others. The findings were largely consistent with 7 propositions derived from major theories of the developmental courses of personal relationships. In particular, mothers and fathers were seen as the most frequent providers of support in the fourth grade. Same-sex friends were perceived to be as supportive as parents in the seventh grade, and were the most frequent providers of support in the tenth grade. Romantic partners moved up in rank with age until college, where they, along with friends and mothers, received the highest ratings for support. Age differences were also observed in perceptions of relationships with grandparents, teachers, and siblings. Finally, age differences in perceived conflict, punishment, and relative power suggested that there was a peak in tension in parent-child relationships in early and middle adolescence. Discussion centers around the role various relationships are perceived as playing at different points in development.

Although previous research has examined the development of children’s conceptions of friendship, two major limitations currently exist. First, previous investigators have relied principally on a single methodological approach-the open-ended interview. Second, little is known about children’s expectations of other peer relationships or how friendship expectations are distinguished from them. These two issues were addressed in the present study by administering second-, fourth-, and sixth-grade children three measures: (a) an open-ended interview, (b) a story-recognition task, and (c) a questionnaire about the importance of different characteristics to friendships and acquaintances. In general, friendship expectations based on dispositional characteristics increased in saliency with age, whereas characteristics referring to overt behaviors remained constant. Several substantive differences were found among the three measures. Children recognized the importance of different friendship expectations before spontaneously reporting them in the interview. Moreover, the recognition tasks yielded a more complete set of friendship expectations than the interview did. Finally, children of all ages differentiated between expectations for friends and acquaintances, but the degree of differentiation increased with age.

This study employed social psychological theories of group formation to conceptualize and predict age differences in peer groups. Adolescents were administered questionnaires about the characteristics of their peer groups. Early and middle adolescents reported placing more value on being in a popular group and perceived more group conformity and leadership within their groups than preand late adolescents. Early and middle adolescents also reported more antagonist interactions and fewer positive interactions with group members and more antagonistic interactions with those not part of their peer groups. Girls reported having more positive group interactions, being more bothered by negative interactions, and having more permeable group boundaries. Boys reported more negative interactions with those outside their groups. Results are discussed in the context of adolescent development. Adolescence is a period in which individuals are expanding their perspective beyond the family and learning how to negotiate relationships with others in the social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents (Sherif & Sherif, 1964; Youniss & Smollar, 1985). The peer group can also serve as a bridge from childhood parental dependencies to a sense of autonomy and connectedness with the greater social

Three formerly hospitalized but vocationally employable psychiatric patients received job interview training through a behavior rehearsal procedure. For each subject, job-interviewing skill components (such as providing positive information about background, asking questions, gesturing, expressing enthusiasm) were sequentially introduced in multiple baseline fashion. Upon the introduction of training, each component increased substantially. Pre- to post-training changes in interviews with actual personnel managers were also assessed which reflected improvement in two of the three subjects. Subsequent ratings by a second personnel manager provided confirmation and social validation of the procedure.

One of the central and most controversial problems in developmental psychology is the question of continuity and discontinuity in development. Numerous empirical studies have examined this question, and many theoretical positions have been proposed (e.g., Brim & Kagan, 1980; Emde, Gaensbauer, & Harmon, 1976; Emmerich, 1968; Green-ough, this volume; Kagan, this volume; Mischel, 1968; Rutter, this volume; Sackett, Sameroff, Cairns, & Suomi, 1981; Wohlwill, 1973). Although little consensus has been reached, developmentalists of any persuasion would agree that human beings undergo a series of changes in the course of the life span. Moreover, human lives appear to be characterized by periods of relative stability and periods of marked change or transition. These transitions are thought to be the times when major reorganizations or discontinuities may occur.

Educators are increasingly using peer tutoring procedures in their work with underachieving students. Anecdotal reports suggest that peer tutoring may produce both academic gains and positive attitude changes in the tutor, including heightened self-esteem and increased motivation to learn (Gartner, Kohler, & Riessman, 1971). Systematic evaluations of peer-tutoring programs provide some support for such gains but also raise questions about the generality of these effects. Although positive gains in achievement for tutors are reported by Rust (1970), Liette (1972), and Allen and Feldman (1973), other investigators have found no specific achievement effects (Erikson & Cromack, 1972; Rogers, 1970). Similarly, gains in attitudes have been reported by some investigators (Haggerty, 1971) but not by others (Foster, 1972; Horan, DeGirolomo, Hill, & Shute, 1974). These empirical investigations of peer tutoring have left several questions unanswered. Only limited attention has been directed toward the attitudes of both tutor and tutee. Additionally, although not all studies have found measurable effects, the causes of success or failure of any one program are unclear. Apparently, peer tutoring is effective under some conditions but not under others. Applied peer-tutoring programs often differ in many ways, making it difficult to isolate the factors that may be mediating attitude change. Outcome has been related to a variety of program characteristics, ranging from tutor sex (Cicirelli, 1972), race (Lakin, 1972), and previous training (Niedermeyer, 1970) to the amount of tutee imitation (Allen & Devin-Sheehan, Note 1) or the effects of tutor–tutee sibling relationships (Cicirelli, 1972). It remains unclear, however, how these diverse factors may mediate attitude change. Without a conceptual model of the attitude change processes involved in peer tutoring, it is difficult to integrate such findings. Recently, role theory has been suggested as a conceptual framework within which peer tutoring effects may be explored and analyzed (Allen, 1976). According to role theory, enactment of a role produces changes in behavior, attitudes, and self-perceptions consistent with role expectations. Allen and Feldman (1973) suggested that the role of teacher represents competence, prestige, and authority. A child playing the role of teacher in a peer-tutoring situation may be expected to show changes in attitudes along these dimensions. As tutors begin to perceive themselves as more competent, they should develop more positive attitudes toward school and learning. The prestige and authority of the tutor role should also increase their feelings of importance, power, and self-worth. Children’s perceptions of their roles may be a central determinant of the attitude changes produced during tutoring experiences. Theoretically, the more that situational variables increase children’s perceptions of themselves as teachers, the greater the impact their role enactment will have. For example, when situations are structured to maximize children’s perceptions of the tutor role as a reflection of their own competence, greater positive changes in their self-concept may result. One way in which contextual variables may exert influence on role perceptions is through the initial role assignment process. Different procedures of role assignment may generate perceptions of tutor roles that vary in degree and quality of similarity to teacher roles. For example, when children are told that they have been assigned the role of tutor because of demonstrated competence, perceived similarity to a teacher is high and based on an achieved and valued quality. When role assignment is based on a teacherlike physical characteristic, perceived similarity is also high but on a less important dimension. Similarity between the teacher role and the tutor role may be perceived as low when no teacher qualities are necessary for assignment to tutor, as when role assignment is based on chance. The effects of contextual variables on the attitudes of tutees are less clearly defined in a role-theory analysis. To some extent, however, one would expect that conditions bolstering the role of the peer tutor would reflect negatively on the status of the tutee role. The purpose of this study was to evaluate a role-theory analysis of the attitudinal effects of peer tutoring on tutors and tutees. In particular, we hypothesized that attitude changes resulting from tutoring experiences are mediated by role perceptions and that contextual variables affect these role perceptions. To evaluate these hypotheses, fourth-grade children were assigned to be tutors or tutees, and they engaged in brief tutoring interactions. The assigned role was expected to have a major effect on role perceptions, and children enacting tutor roles were therefore expected to have more positive attitudes than children enacting tutee roles. The effects of contextual variables on role perceptions and attitudes were evaluated by providing children with four different rationales of role assignment. Some children were told that their role assignment was based on their prior performance (competence), some were told that assignment was based on a teacherlike physical quality (a clear voice), and some were told that assignment was based on chance (a coin toss). In the fourth condition, children received no information about the basis for their role assignment. We expected that role enactment would produce the most substantial effects for tutors when role assignment was based on competence. We predicted that tutoring would be somewhat less effective when role assignment was based on chance. When no basis for assignment was given, we expected that the tutor’s role perceptions would reflect the societal role of teacher and, hence, would produce positive attitudinal effects, similar to the role perceptions of children who were assigned on the basis of competence. The effects of the three rationales of role assignment on tutees’ attitudes were expected to be the reverse of the effects on tutors’ attitudes. When no rationale for role assignment was given, tutees were not expected to assume any deficiency in themselves relative to the tutor and were therefore expected to have attitudes similar to children assigned to tutees on the basis of chance. Additionally, the effects of the tutoring experience on different dimensions of attitudes were assessed by including measures of self-evaluation, attitudes toward the role, and attitudes toward the task. It was predicted that the effects of role and assignment condition would be strongest on attitudes toward one’s role, since role perceptions were expected to play a central function in mediating other attitudinal effects.

Although friendships are important throughout the lifespan, they seem to be particularly important during middle childhood and adolescence. Prior to this time, parents command center stage; after this period, heterosexual relationships become the primary concern. By examining friendship as it develops into a significant form of relationship during this period, we hope to shed light on the functional importance of friendship. In particular, we consider three ways that friends contribute to social development and adjustment: (a) the fulfillment of interpersonal needs, (b) the socialization of interpersonal competence, & (c) the provision of natural therapeutic experiences. Our approach is developmental in that we trace the path by which friendship grows to its mature form. It is also comparative in that we consider the relative role of friendship within the child’s broad network of relationships.

One of the most noteworthy features of sibling relationships is their marked diversity. Striking differences in sibling relationships exist across cultures. Similarly, considerable differences exist within any one culture or subculture. Some sibling relationships are egalitarian, similar in some respects to those between friends. Others are asymmetrical, requiring one child to be responsible for the other. Sibling relationships vary not only in the distribution of power and responsibility, but also in affective quality. Relationships can be close or distant, harmonious or conflicted, cooperative or competitive.