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INTRODUCTION Adolescence is a period when adolescents seek autonomy and parent-adolescent conflict appears inevitable. Even though some research found that parental psychological control triggered parent-adolescent conflict, studies clarifying the directionality of effects at the within-family level are scarce. This study investigated the longitudinal relations between parental psychological control and parent-adolescent conflict using a traditional cross-lagged panel model (CLPM) and the random-intercept CLPM (RI-CLPM) framework. METHODS Data from 2473 Chinese adolescents (Mage Time1 = 13.20 years, standard deviation = 0.52 years; 51.4% male) were collected via a cross-sectional survey across three time points. Adolescents reported on parental psychological control, parent-adolescent conflict, and demographic characteristics at each time point. CLPM and RI-CLPM were utilized. RESULTS The results from the CLPM analyses suggested a reciprocal effects model. However, the results from the RI-CLPM framework supported a conflict-driven model at the within-family level, wherein if parent-adolescent conflict increased, subsequent parental psychological control would increase as a result. The reverse pattern was not observed. CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate the maladaptive processes of parent-adolescent conflict that shape parental psychologically controlling behaviors in Chinese families at the within-family level. Practical implications, including how to assist Chinese parents to address parent-adolescent conflict and to reduce psychological control, are discussed.

The present study took a differentiated perspective on parental psychological control to examine its impact on adolescent adjustment among urban (n = 349, females: 53%) and rural (n = 293, females: 54%) Chinese adolescents (Mage = 12.14 years). Four times over the first 2 years of Junior High school (from October, 2016 to April, 2018), adolescents reported on parental psychological control, their psychological well-being (life satisfaction and depressive symptoms), and academic relative autonomy. Adolescents' grades also were obtained. The findings show generally negative effects of social comparison shame, love withdrawal and harsh psychological control (but not shared shame or parental relationship-oriented guilt induction) on adolescents' psychological well-being, and negative effects of social comparison shame on adolescents' academic functioning.

Hong Kong parents’ psychological control is evident as relatively high, which might have a negative impact on their children’s life orientation and attitude. Optimism plays a central role in young people’s development, psychological well-being, and health. This study aimed to examine 1) the relationship between parental psychological control and optimism; 2) the mediating role of self-mastery between these two concepts. A cross-sectional study was employed to collect/measure Hong Kong middle-school students’ socio-demographic information, parent psychological control (measured by The Chinese Paternal Psychological Control Scale), self-mastery (measured by The Mastery Scale), and optimism (measured by The Chinese version of the 6-item Revised-Life Orientation Test). Multivariate regression analysis and Baron and Kenny’s four-step approach were adopted for the relationships/mediation analyses. A total of 9244 middle school adolescents were included in the data analysis. The average age of the adolescents was 15.11 (SD, 1.79) years (ranges from 11 to 18). The regression analysis showed that both paternal psychological control (β = -0.036, p

The purpose of this study was to examine that multiple mediating effects of self-determination and selfefficacy in the relationship between the parental control and career maturity. In the study, 747 university students in Daegu, Busan and Seoul area were surveyed on their perceived level of parental control, career maturity, self-determination and self-efficacy. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, one-way ANOVA, and Pearson correlation analysis with SPSS 25.0 program, Hayes’Process Macro program and bootstrapping. The major results of this study were as follows; First, there were significant differences in college student’s career maturity by grade, major, experience in career-related services and part-time job experience period. Second, there were significant correlations between parental control(behavioral control and psychological control), career maturity, self-determination and self-efficacy.Third, self-determination and Self-efficacy had multiple mediating effects in the relationship between parental control and career maturity. In conclusion, this study found multiple mediating effects of self-determination and self-efficacy in the relationship between parental control(behavioral control and psychological control) and career maturity. It was also found that parental behavioral control had a positive effect on career maturity by increasing self-determination and self-efficacy while parental psychological control had a negative effect on career maturity by decreasing self-determination and self-efficacy.

This study aimed to examine whether parents' autonomy support and psychological control during sibling conflict would relate to children's need-based experiences and relationship functioning within the sibling relationship. Two siblings (Mage = 8.61 years, SD = 0.91 and Mage = 10.50 years, SD = 0.94) of 205 families filled out questionnaires. Results showed that parental autonomy support related positively to siblings' relationship satisfaction via children's need satisfaction. Additionally, fathers' psychological control related negatively to provided autonomy support and positively to provided psychological control from one sibling to the other (as reported by the other sibling) and negatively to satisfaction with this relationship via need frustration. These findings highlight the importance of the quality of parents' involvement during sibling conflict.

Do students procrastinate less when their parents psychologically press them to study? Or do they show procrastination when classroom environment lacks structure? In this study, we aimed to investigate to what extent perceived maternal psychological control and perceived classroom structure in math class relate to adolescents' academic procrastination in math via adolescents' academic self-concept in math. Three hundred fifty-three adolescents (M-age = 16.86 years, SD = 1.35) rated maternal psychological control, structure provided by their math teachers, their own academic self-concept in math, and academic procrastination in math. Results from structural equation model indicated that procrastination in math was positively predicted by achievement-oriented psychological control and negatively by perceived provision of structure by means of academic self-concept in math. Based on the current findings, we provided some suggestions for school counselors and other specialists.

Perfectionism is a pervasive and prevalent personality disposition with high implications for psychological maladjustment. Adolescence represents a particularly relevant period for the development of perfectionism, and perceived parental behaviors have been shown to play an important part. Yet, so far only few longitudinal studies have investigated the role of risk and protective parental behaviors in the development of perfectionism in adolescents. Examining a sample of 744 adolescents ( Mage = 15.2 years), the present study investigated developmental trajectories of self-oriented, socially prescribed, and other-oriented perfectionism over four waves spaced five to six months apart. Results of growth mixture modeling showed that self-oriented perfectionism followed three developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; medium and decreasing; high and stable) as did socially prescribed perfectionism (low and stable; medium and increasing; high and stable). Other-oriented perfectionism showed four developmental trajectories (low and decreasing; low and stable; high and stable; high and increasing). Significant differences were observed between groups regarding all investigated perceived parental behaviors (psychological control, behavioral control, responsiveness, and autonomy support). Similarities and differences between the development of each form of perfectionism and the role of each parental behavior as well as implications of these findings for the understanding of the development of perfectionism in adolescence are discussed.

Straipsnyje pristatomu tyrimu (N = 514) siekiama nustatyti sąsajas tarp humanistinio dvasingumo, kaip jis konceptualizuojamas mūsų sukurtame Humanistinio dvasingumo modelyje, ir auklėjimo šeimoje patirčių – autoritetingojo, valdingojo bei leidžiančiojo auklėjimo šeimoje stilių, tėvų psichologinės ir elgesio kontrolės bei saugaus ir nesaugaus prieraišumo prie tėvų ir prie Kito suaugystėje stilių. Tyrimo nustatyta, kad iš trijų auklėjimo šeimoje stilių tik autoritetingasis yra svarbus teigiamas dvasingumo prediktorius, tačiau dar svarbesni veiksniai už autoritetingąjį auklėjimą yra saugus prieraišumas suaugystėje ir demografiniai moteriškos lyties bei amžiaus kintamieji. Tėvų taikytos elgesio ir psichologinės kontrolės dimensijos nėra reikšmingi dvasingumo prediktoriai, o saugus prieraišumas prie motinos dvasingumą prognozuoja tik netiesiogiai, nes yra reikšmingas vieno svarbiausių dvasingumo etiologijos veiksnių, saugaus prieraišumo prie Kito suaugystėje, prediktorius. Spirituality is a complex multidimensional phenomenon which does not yield itself to a universal conceptualisation, though it is possible to distinguish common variables in the views of this construct from its diverse definitions. The proposed Humanistic Spirituality Model best reflects the secularised reality of today and captures the essential dimensions of spirituality through three components: 1) selfactualisation, which implies a mature perception of reality, spontaneity, creativity, peak experiences, personal growth, detachment, Gemeinschafsgefühl and profound interpersonal relations; (2) transcendence, which implies belief in the Higher Power, self-transcendence and a holistic approach to Being; and (3) ultimate meaning in life, which presupposes awareness of faith-inspired directedness and ontological significance of life. The model served as the basis for the development of the Humanistic Spirituality Inventory, a 40-item measure which contains three scales corresponding to the three model components and has good psychometric properties, i.e. adequate content and construct validity as well as satisfactory internal consistency and testretest reliability (Kontrimienė, 2019). The current study (N = 514) explores the relationship between humanistic spirituality and parenting experiences as its etiological determinants defined herein as parenting styles, parental psychological and behavioural control and parental and adult attachment styles in a sample of students drawn from five Lithuanian universities. The authoritative parenting style (see Baumrind, 2005) is described as controlling but flexible, it presupposes parental acceptance and responsiveness as well as support for child’s age-appropriate independence. Authoritarian parenting implies low responsiveness, low nurturance, the use of detrimental forms of power assertion, love withdrawal and imposition of many rules to gain compliance. Lastly, permissive parenting is viewed as an accepting, responsive but lax pattern of parenting in which parents abdicate their parental authority, make relatively few demands and rarely exert firm control over their child’s behaviour.Parental behavioural control refers to parental regulation of child’s behaviours and implies parental knowledge and monitoring (Barber, 2005). Parental psychological control constrains, invalidates and manipulates the child’s psychological and emotional experience and includes such dimensions as constraining verbal expressions, invalidating feelings, personal attack, guilt induction and love withdrawal (Barber, 1996). Attachment styles (as proposed in Ainsworth’s (1989) theory) capture three distinct patterns referred to as secure, insecure-avoidant and insecure-ambivalent. The secure style develops in children who use the attachment figure as a safe base in times of distress. The insecure avoidant style characterises children who do not orientate to the attachment figure. The insecure ambivalent style refers to children who adopt an ambivalent behavioural style towards the attachment figure, exhibit clingy and dependent behaviour but tend to be rejecting of the attachment figure in an interaction. These three patterns of attachment are decisive in the development of internal working models (or schemas) which govern behaviour in adulthood. The secure adult attachment style (Bartholomew, Horowitz, 1991) presupposes a positive perception of the self and a positive regard of others, which often leads to the creation of mature trusting relationships. The ambivalent style is associated with a negative perception of the self and a positive perception of others, which increases the likelihood of preoccupation with relationships. The dismissing-avoidant style entails a positive perception of the self and a negative perception of others, for which reason close relationships are avoided. Finally, the fearful-avoidant style presupposes a negative perception of both the self and others and may result in an urge to seek proximity but remain detached from significant others to protect emotions. The main findings of our study suggest that of the three parenting styles, only the authoritative style is a significant positive predictor of spirituality, though secure attachment in adulthood and the two demographic variables, age and female gender, serve as even more salient predictors. Both parents‘ behavioural and psychological control forms do not predict humanistic spirituality, whereas secure attachment to the mother furthers spirituality indirectly as it is a significant predictor of one of the most important determinants of spirituality, secure attachment in adulthood. These results suggest that experiences of parenting may serve as important factors in the etiology of spirituality such that spiritual development takes place in accordance with the principle “as with parents, so with God”, whereby the concept of God formed by a person may be a projection of feelings they have for their parents.

While individual parenting behaviors have been shown to account for adolescents’ posttraumatic symptoms, no study has investigated whether parenting profiles can relate to posttraumatic symptoms among Chinese adolescents. This study aimed to identify parenting profiles using person-centered latent profile analysis and examine their associations with psychological distress. Nine hundred and fifty-four Chinese adolescents completed questionnaires measuring their perception of parental psychological control, behavioral control, autonomy granting, mother and father rejection, and psychological distress (PTSD and psychiatric co-morbidity). Among them, six hundred and ninety-nine had experienced trauma in the past and were included in the data analysis. Four parenting profiles were generated: controlling-rejecting (lower level), autonomous-accepting, undifferentiated and controlling-rejecting (higher level). Undifferentiated parenting was the dominant profile. Adolescents who had parents with the autonomous-accepting parenting profile showed the least distress, while those with the controlling-rejecting (higher level) profile showed the most. Following trauma, adolescents can develop posttraumatic distress, the level of which can vary depending on different perceived parenting styles. Adolescents with parents who accept and give them autonomy tend to show a low level of distress.

Both maternal symptoms and adolescent offspring characteristics are associated with maladaptive parenting among families at risk for anxiety. One disorder that may be particularly associated with maladaptive parenting behaviors is generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Previous work suggests that offspring negative affect (NA) is associated with different levels of maladaptive parenting behaviors among mothers with GAD. No work to date, however, has examined the association between offspring reported NA, maternal GAD, and maternal worry about offspring or maternal perceptions of psychological control (PC) among mothers of adolescents. Sixty-five mothers who were elevated in anxious arousal and their adolescent offspring between the ages of 12 and 16 years old (n = 65, 55% male, Mage = 13.89) reported on parenting (mother report), NA (offspring report), and GAD symptoms (assessed via structured clinical interview), and maternal anxiety sensitivity (AS) symptoms. Study results indicated that maternal GAD status interacted with offspring NA in relation to maternal reported use of PC and worry about offspring. Specifically, offspring NA was positively related to PC for mothers without GAD, but not for mothers with GAD. Further, for mothers with GAD, offspring NA was negatively related to worry about offspring, but this relation did not persist for mothers without GAD. Maternal AS was related to overall higher levels of worry about offspring and PC. Mothers with GAD report using higher levels of maladaptive parenting when offspring report lower levels of NA, and lower levels when offspring report high NA. This pattern was specific to maternal GAD (c.f. anxiety sensitivity).

More research is needed to understand the different vulnerability profiles of university students who engage in non-suicidal self-injury (NSSI). This study sought to classify university students (n = 479; 83.8% female) aged 17–25 years (M = 18.77; SD = 1.42) who had engaged in NSSI within the past year into latent profiles based on their self-perceived difficulties in regulating both positive and negative emotions. Independent samples of students who had a past history of NSSI but had not self-injured within the previous year (n = 439; 82.9% females; Mage = 19.03, SD = 1.62) and who had no history of NSSI (n = 1551; 69.9% females; Mage = 19.02, SD = 1.55) were recruited for comparison purposes. Latent cluster analyses revealed three emotion regulation profiles within the NSSI sample—the Average Difficulties (47.4%), Dysregulated (33.0%), and Low Difficulties (19.6%) profiles—each of which differed meaningfully from both comparison samples on mean emotion regulation difficulties. Students across profiles also differed in their self-reported experiences with parents, particularly with fathers (pressure, antipathy, unresolved attachment, psychological control), and in the extent to which they felt alienated from parents. Lastly, students across profiles differed in the frequency, methods, functions, and addictive properties of their NSSI. Findings highlight that university students who self-injure experience distinct patterns of difficulties with emotion regulation, which are associated with variation in parent–child relational risk factors and NSSI outcomes.

Using random intercept cross-lagged panel analysis, this study examined the longitudinal relations of mathematics anxiety to maternal achievement-oriented psychological control and academic contingent self-esteem in 336 Chinese adolescents from the age of 13 to 17. Results showed that, at the between-person level, adolescents who perceived their mothers as more psychologically controlling in achievement domains over time were also the ones with higher levels of academic contingent self-esteem and mathematics anxiety, compared with other adolescents. Our within-person analyses are in line with the within-person hypotheses that underline self-determination theory: adolescents’ perceptions of maternal achievement-oriented psychological control were linked to mathematics anxiety through academic contingent self-esteem. We also found that the association between maternal achievement-oriented psychological control and mathematics anxiety was bidirectional, which supports the transactional perspective of parental influence. This study contributes to the literature by elucidating potential processes and reciprocal associations involved in parental psychological control, academic contingent self-esteem, and mathematics anxiety.

Considering the prevalence of cyberbullying, the current study explores the factors associated with its perpetration. Using self-determination theory, the association of parental psychological control (PPC) with cyberbullying perpetration was examined. To explore this influencing mechanism further, psychological reactance (PRt) and materialism were examined as two mediators in this relationship. Moreover, according to the diathesis–stress model and cognitive model of resilience, psychological resilience (PRl) was examined as a moderator in the direct and indirect link between PPC and cyberbullying perpetration. To test our expectations, 804 adolescents ( M = 13.12, SD = 1.16) participated in the current study using a cross-sectional design and multiple questionnaires, namely, the Chinese version of the Parental Control Questionnaire, Revised Cyber Bullying Inventory, Hong Psychological Reactance Scale, Material Values Scale for Children, and Resilience Scale for Chinese Adolescents. Correlation analysis indicated that PPC, PRt, materialism, and cyberbullying perpetration were significantly and positively correlated, and were significantly and negatively related to PRl. Moderated mediation analysis revealed that PRt and materialism played multiple mediating roles in the relationship between PPC and cyberbullying perpetration. Multiple mediation analysis indicated that PRl weakened the direct associations of PPC, PRt, and materialism with cyberbullying perpetration, further alleviating the indirect and direct associations of PPC with cyberbullying perpetration, supporting the moderated mediation model. Specifically, adolescents high in PPC were more likely to have stronger PRt and materialistic values, which further triggered cyberbullying perpetration. PRl can protect adolescents high in PPC from cyberbullying perpetration via weakening the direct and indirect associations of PPC with cyberbullying.

본 연구는 부모의 심리적 통제와 대학생의 학업지연행동의 관계에서 내면화된 수치심과 인지적 유연성의 매개효과를 검증하고자 하였다. 이를 위해서 경기도 소재의 대학교에 재학중인 대학생 670명을 대상으로 학업지연행동 척도, 부모의 심리적 통제 척도, 내면화된 수치심 척도, 인지적 유연성 척도로 구성된 설문지를 실시하였고, 이를 통해 수집된 620명(남238, 여382)의 자료에 대하여 주요 변인 간의 상관관계를 분석하고 매개효과를 검증하였다. 본 연구의 결과를 요약하면 다음과 같다. 첫째, 주요 변인들 간의 상관의 결과로서, 부모의 심리적 통제와 학업지연행동, 부모의 심리적 통제와 내면화된 수치심, 내면화된 수치심과 학업지연행동 간에 정적인 상관이 확인되었으며, 부모의 심리적 통제와 인지적 유연성, 내면화된 수치심과 인지적 유연성, 인지적 유연성과 학업지연행동 간에 부적인 상관이 확인되었다. 둘째, 매개효과 검증의 결과로서, 부모의 심리적 통제와 학업지연 행동 간의 관계에서 내면화된 수치심과 인지적 유연성은 순차적 매개 효과가 있는 것으로 확인되었다. 마지막으로 본 연구의 의의 및 제한점에 대하여 논의하였다.

Parenting has a strong influence on child development. However, there is minimal empirical evidence on why some parents use beneficial techniques, while others use harmful behaviours. Thus, there is a significant gap in the knowledge needed to address problematic parenting. Theories suggest that parental self-concept has a large influence on parenting behaviours. The aim of this study was to examine the relation between parent self-cognitions and parenting behaviours. One-hundred and four mothers of Grade 7 students completed questionnaires measuring their self-esteem, self-criticism, domain-specific self-concept, and parenting behaviours (support, behavioural control, and psychological control). Regression analyses demonstrated that self-cognitions largely predicted psychological control but support or behavioural control did not. These findings suggest that psychologically controlling behaviour in parents may be due to poor self-worth. With psychological control known to deeply damage children, these findings have major implications for interventions targeting harmful parenting.

Our study aimed to develop our understanding of the relationship between parental psychological control and externalizing behaviors among adolescents. We investigated the fit of a theoretical model in which need frustration and self-control were specified as sequential mediators between parental psychological control and externalizing behaviors. A sample of Chinese adolescents and their parents participated in the research. These seventh and ninth graders (n = 1118, mean age = 14.52 years, SD = 1.65) reported perceived maternal and paternal psychological control, and reported their own experience of need frustration and self-rated levels of self-control. Externalizing problems were rated by both parents. The results of structural equation modeling revealed analogous structural associations between perceived maternal and paternal psychological control and externalizing problems. Overall, psychological control was directly associated with externalizing behaviors in the maternal model (β = 0.24, p

The study attempts to find out the relation between parental attitude as perceived by adolescents in the dimensions of autonomy, firm control and psychological control to their healthy personality. The healthy personality is measured in terms of several distinct variables. From this the predictors of healthy personality from parental attitudes is derived. The sample selected were 129 adolescents pursuing under graduation in various colleges in the district of Trivandrum, Kerala state. The questionnaires used were CRPBI (Child’s Report of Parent Behavior Inventory) and Healthy Personality questionnaire. Results revealed that the three dimensions of parenting studied have a significant relation to healthy personality of adolescents.

This study examined the longitudinal relationships among materialism, parent–child relationship quality, and psychological control for fathers and mothers. Data came from 254 heterosexual couples participating in the Flourishing Families Project, a 10-year longitudinal study of inner family life. We found that the association of parents’ materialism at T1 and parent–child relationship at T2 differed by gender. In harmony with our hypothesis, fathers’ materialism at T1 significantly predicted a decrease in father–child relationship quality at T2. Contrary to our hypothesis, mothers’ materialism at T1 was not significantly associated with mother–child relationship quality at T2. Parental psychological control was negatively related to both father–child and motherchild relationship quality but did not serve as a moderator in the relationship between materialism and parent–child relationships. That materialism appears to be detrimental to father–child relationship quality but not detract from mother–child relationship quality is thought provoking. We propose several possible explanations for these disparate findings, including a possible link between materialism and empowerment for women (but not men), and that materialism for women (but not men) may be associated with goods purchased for the benefit of the family rather than the individual. We provide suggestions for future research based on these findings.

본 연구의 목적은 학업지연행동에 영향을 주는 가정 · 환경적 요인의 부모의 심리적 통제와 학업지연행동과의 관계에서 성격적 특성의 부적응 완벽주의와 학습의 과정으로 볼 수 있는 자기조절학습능력의 매개효과를 검증하는데 있다. 나아가 이러한 구조적 관계가 남녀 학생 집단에 따라 차이가 있는지 확인하고자 하였다. 이를 위해 서울시 소재 3개 학교의 중학생 594명(남: 253명, 여: 341명)을 대상으로 이론적 모형을 검증하였다. 연구 결과 부모의 심리적 통제와 학업지연행동의 관계에서 부적응 완벽주의와 자기조절학습의 단순매개효과 및 순차적 매개효과 모두 유의하였다. 이 때 어머니의 심리적 통제와 학업지연행동의 직접효과는 유의하지 않아 부적응 완벽주의와 자기조절학습은 완전매개효과를 갖는 것으로 나타났다. 다집단 분석 결과 남학생과 여학생 집단에서 경로계수의 차이는 유의미하지 않은 것으로 나타났다. 연구결과를 바탕으로 학업지연행동 감소를 위해 중학생의 부적응 완벽주의를 낮추고 자기조절학습능력을 향상시키는 방안과 동시에 부모 역시 학업에 대해 통제보다는 정서적인 지지와 신뢰를 바탕으로 자율성을 보장해주는 양육태도에 대한 개입이 필요함을 제시하였다.

El presente estudio buscó determinar las diferencias en las prácticas parentales por consumo de marihuana en jóvenes universitarios. Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística de 583 estudiantes universitarios (53% fueron mujeres y 47% hombres), con un promedio de edad de 21.33 años. Se adaptó la Escala de prácticas parentales de Andrade y Betancourt (2008), la cual se conforma de dos subescalas (una para la madre y otra para el padre), que evalúan: imposición, comunicación, autonomía, control psicológico y control conductual. Además, se utilizaron seis indicadores para evaluar el consumo de marihuana. Los resultados mostraron que 47.16% de los estudiantes ha consumido marihuana alguna vez en su vida. Asimismo, se encontraron diferencias significativas en las prácticas parentales por categoría de consumo, donde los jóvenes que no han consumido percibieron en general prácticas parentales más positivas respecto a los que han consumido en el último año y en el último mes.

The present study examined the interactions of adolescents' temperamental effortful control and parental psychological control on adolescents' depressive symptoms in China. A total of 440 adolescents between the ages of 14 and 20 years (Mage = 15.7) participated in this study. Data on parental psychological control, adolescents' depressive symptoms and effortful control were collected from self-reports. Results showed that adolescents' effortful control moderated the link between paternal psychological control and adolescents' depressive symptoms. Specifically, for adolescents with low levels of effortful control, paternal psychological control was positively associated with increased depressive symptoms whereas for adolescents with a high level of effortful control, this association was not significant. In addition, maternal psychological control was associated with adolescents' depressive symptoms. These findings confirmed and extended previous findings on the associations between parental psychological control, children's temperament effortful control, and depressive symptoms in adolescence.

The important role of parenting is widely acknowledged, but as most studies have understood and examined it as a stable attribute (e.g., parenting style), the stability of and changes in parenting are less well understood. Using longitudinal person-oriented approaches (i.e., latent profile analyses and latent transition analyses), this study aimed to examine the stability of and changes in autonomy-related parenting profiles and their effects on adolescents’ academic and psychological development. Four autonomy-related dimensions (i.e., autonomy support, warmth, psychological control, conditional regard) were chosen to identify parenting profiles on the basis of Self-Determination Theory. Using five-year longitudinal data from 789 German secondary school students (50.06% female, Mage at T1 = 10.82 years, age span = 10–17), four autonomy-related parenting profiles were found: Supportive (~17%), Controlling (~31%), Unsupportive-Uncontrolling (~17%), and Limited Supportive (~35%). The results suggest that the Supportive profile contributes to adolescents’ positive academic and psychological development, whereas the Controlling profile, which thwarts autonomy development, exacerbates the development of psychopathology, and impairs academic achievement. More importantly, the Limited Supportive profile is as maladaptive as the Unsupportive-Uncontrolling profile. Regarding parenting profiles’ stability and changes, the results showed that about half of each profile stayed in the same group. Overall, it could be observed that parents became more supportive and less controlling over time. However, the findings also indicate that parenting profiles are less stable than expected and can still change during early-to-mid adolescence.

The advent of the 21st Century brought a new interest in promoting Positive Youth Development and a renewed emphasis on understanding transactional relations between parenting and adolescent development. The present study examined conventional parent-driven pathways, which describe the putative role of parents in the formation of positive characteristics in children, as well as the prospect of child-driven effects, which describe how parents respond to evidence of Positive Youth Development by potentially increasing support and reducing psychological control. We tested these pathways in a sample of 458 Lithuanian adolescents (52.2% girls, M = 15.14 years old at the outset) who completed surveys assaying perceptions of parent behaviors and self-reports of positive development (character, competence, connection, caring, and confidence) at annual intervals from ages 15–18. Across most lags, children’s perceptions of parenting changed in response to their own positive development with increased support and decreased psychological control. In contrast, there were no longitudinal associations from perceptions of parenting to subsequent Positive Youth Development. The results offer insight into parenting in the 21st Century, a time when youth are increasingly encouraged/required to acquire volunteer experiences designed to promote positive development. To the extent that these experiences are successful, one unexpected offshoot may be better relationships with parents.

Parental psychological control hinders the development of autonomy, identity formation, and the attainment of self-determination and individuation of adolescents. The aim of this study was to deepen the understanding of which conditions increase the risk of the use of maternal psychological control by simultaneously considering the contribution of adolescent temperament, maternal separation anxiety, and adolescents’ perception of interparental conflict. A correlational study involving a sample of 106 Chilean adolescent-mother dyads was done. Adolescents were, on average, 15.42 years old (SD= 1.09) and 77% male. Mothers were, on average, 45.46 years old (SD= 6.39). We administered self-report questionnaires to the adolescent measuring effortful control and frustration as temperamental dimensions, along with the perception of interparental conflict. Mothers reported on their separation anxiety. Both the adolescents and their mothers reported on the use of parental psychological control. Adolescents reported higher levels of maternal psychological control than their mothers did. All predictors were associated with psychological control reports. Higher levels of maternal anxiety about adolescent distancing, inter-parental conflict, and adolescent frustration were associated with higher reported levels of psychological control. In contrast, higher levels of adolescent effortful control were associated with lower levels of maternal psychological control. Finally, when maternal separation anxiety and inter-parental conflict were high there was a higher use of maternal psychological control. The present findings inform on how adolescent's self-regulatory skills could reduce the risk of being exposed to maternal psychological control. And highlight the importance of using a systemic and interactional conceptualization when trying to understand their use.

Many parents continue to parent their emerging-adult children, but what becomes developmentally appropriate for such children differs from that of earlier ages. In addition, culture and context shape parenting and in turn child outcomes. Among an adolescent sample, higher-SES youth engage in higher levels of risk behaviors to manage the pressures they face from trying to live up to their parents’ high expectations for achievement compared to low- and middle-SES youth. Researchers have not yet examined the role of SES on emerging adults’ likelihood of engaging in risk behaviors in response to controlling parenting. Therefore, the current study explored the role of SES on the associations among emerging adults’ perceptions of their parents’ parenting behaviors (i.e., behavioral control, psychological control, and helicopter parenting) and change in their own risk behaviors. Undergraduate students (N = 551; Mage = 19.87, SD = 2.00; 60.6% women; 61% European American; 28.6% higher-SES) from four universities throughout the U.S. completed both waves of the study. Participants completed scales on each of their parents’ behavioral control, psychological control, and helicopter parenting, as well as a self-report measure of their own engagement in risk behaviors. Results indicated that maternal and paternal psychological control were associated positively with change in risk behaviors. Additionally, maternal and paternal behavioral control were associated with greater change in risk behaviors for higher-SES, but not lower-SES emerging adults. The findings provide new insights into the role of SES on the differential influence of parental behavioral control, psychological control, and helicopter parenting on change in emerging adults’ risk behaviors.

Although abundant research has demonstrated associations between psychologically controlling parenting and adolescent problem behavior, little is known about the moderating role of adolescent personality herein. This study examined whether adolescent personality moderates the associations between parental psychological control and internalizing and externalizing problems at the level of within-person change. A 3-wave longitudinal design (N = 198 families, Mage adolescent = 14.89 years, Mage mother = 45.14 years, Mage father = 46.79 years), with 1-year intervals between waves, and using multi-informant assessment was conducted. Multilevel analyses demonstrated that changes in parental psychological control related positively to changes in multi-informant scores of both internalizing and externalizing problems. Evidence for the moderating role of personality was found for only 1 out of 25 interactions in a variable-centered approach and for 2 out of 8 interactions in a person-centered approach. The interactions obtained indicated that a mature personality (i.e., higher scores on emotional stability or membership in a resilient profile in comparison to an overcontrolled profile) buffered against the detrimental effects of psychologically controlling parenting on problem behaviors. Overall, the number of interactions was limited, suggesting only a modest moderating effect of adolescent personality. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

The present study examined the intraindividual, longitudinal, cross-lagged associations between adolescents' perceptions of mothers' and fathers' psychologically controlling parenting and their self-regulation from ages 11-17. Using 7 waves of data involving 500 families and their adolescents (Mage = 11.29; SD = 1.01 at Wave 1), results indicated that adolescent-reported increases in mothers' and fathers' psychological control prospectively and uniquely predicted intraindividual decrements in their self-regulation, controlling for prior levels of self-regulation. Sex differences were largely absent except for one, where fathers' psychological control predicted adolescent females', but not males', declines in self-regulation, and where reverse associations manifested. Implications for intervention efforts are suggested for parents, educators, and practitioners, and future directions for research are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Parental involvement in education has been positively associated with children’s academic development and well-being, but whether high parental involvement, regardless of its form, always yields desirable results in adolescent development remains debatable. The purpose of this study was to investigate the integral contributions of parental involvement, autonomy support, and psychological control in predicting adolescent learning motivation (i.e., achievement goals and academic engagement) and subjective well-being (SWB) by implementing a person-centered approach. Participants included 3378 Chinese adolescents (Mage = 15.60, SD = 1.55; 1513 boys), who completed a survey. Results revealed four parenting profiles: high control‒low involvement (Profile 1; 7.55%), moderate all (Profile 2; 50.65%), high all (Profile 3; 4.00%), and high autonomy support–moderate involvement (Profile 4; 37.80%). Adolescents in Profile 4 were more adaptive, more engaged, and happier than those in other profiles; and those in Profile 1 were more maladaptive, a condition relating to poorer development. Although adolescents in Profile 3 also perceived both high involvement and autonomy support from parents, they actually exhibited levels of learning motivation and SWB similar to those in Profile 2 and experienced higher performance-avoidance goals, negative affect, and lower life satisfaction relative to Profile 4. Findings suggest that more perceived parental involvement is not always better because the effectiveness of involvement partly depends on the approach that parents take.

Although parental psychological control has been consistently linked with negative outcomes in the child and adolescent literature, little is known about how it functions during the developmental time frame of emerging adulthood, which is characterized by increased freedom and instability. Consequently, this study examined the extent to which paternal and maternal psychological controls were directly and indirectly (via self-esteem) related to hallmarks of emerging adult adjustment, notably risky behaviors, life satisfaction, and feelings about adulthood status. Recruited via MTurk, participants were 310 emerging adults ( M age = 25.37; 56% female) across the U.S. who completed an online survey. Results revealed paternal psychological control had a direct effect on risky behaviors and self-esteem, whereas maternal psychological control solely had a direct effect on risky behaviors. Results also indicated indirect effects of paternal psychological control. Increases in paternal psychological control were linked to declines in self-esteem, which in turn was associated with decreased life satisfaction and endorsement of adulthood status. Altogether, findings suggest that even low levels of parental psychological control were linked to detrimental outcomes in an age-representative sample—encompassing the full age range of emerging adulthood from 18 years to 29 years—of emerging adults. Thus, findings contribute to a better understanding of parent–child relationships and the consequences of parental control during the third decade of life, which has important implications for informing parenting strategies across emerging adulthood.

Objective The study investigated the relationship between psychological parental control and muscle dysmorphia in adolescence, as form of exercise dependence, focusing also on the role of pathological worry. Methods Participants were 312 adolescents (140 boys and 172 girls) aged 16 to 18 years (M= 17.05; SD = 0.85) and completed the Muscle Dysmorphia Disorder Inventory, the Dependency-oriented and Achievement-oriented Parental Psychological Control, and the Penn State Worry Questionnaire. Results The results highlighted that boys showed higher level than girls in dependency-oriented and achievement-oriented parental psychological control and muscle dysmorphia. Furthermore, girls showed higher levels of pathological worry than boys. Pathological worry partially mediated the relationship between dependency-oriented parental psychological control and muscle dysmorphia as well as between achievement-oriented parental psychological and muscle dysmorphia. Psychological parental control predicted muscle dysmorphia, and pathological worry seemed to act as a partial mediator in this relationship. Conclusions Psychology parental control and pathological worry are linked to muscle dysmorphia, but psychological parental control seems to frustrate the need for autonomy of adolescents and, therefore, muscle dysmorphia may become the maladaptive answer to react to the excessive control of their parents. It seems that body of adolescents may become the scenario towards which they play a sort of power of control to counteract anxiety deriving from the excessive psychological control played by parents.